Psychopathy and violent recidivism among young criminal offenders

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the predictive validity of psychopathic personality traits (assessed with the revised psychopathy checklist, PCL-R; Hare, 1991) for violent criminal recidivism among young offenders. METHOD: The relationship between PCL-R psychopathy and violent re-offending was studied in 98 young (M=18.40, range 15-20 years) violent and sex offenders subjected to forensic psychiatric evaluation in Sweden during 1988-95. Subjects were followed during detainment and for 24 months in the community to first reconviction for a violent offence. RESULTS: We found a modest but significant association between PCL-R scores and violent recidivism, almost exclusively accounted for by behavioural criteria. Among 13 possible confounders tested, conduct disorder before age 15 and a young age at first conviction eliminated the relationship between psychopathy and violent recidivism in pair-wise logistic regression models. CONCLUSION: PCL-R psychopathy may be a less valid predictor for violent criminal recidivism among severe youthful offenders than among adult offenders.     

Empathic competencies in violent offenders

Violent offending has often been associated with a lack of empathy, but experimental investigations are rare. The present study aimed at clarifying whether violent offenders show a general empathy deficit or specific deficits regarding the separate subcomponents. To this end, we assessed three core components of empathy (emotion recognition, perspective taking, affective responsiveness) as well as skin conductance response (SCR) in a sample of 30 male violent offenders and 30 healthy male controls. Data analysis revealed reduced accuracy in violent offenders compared to healthy controls only in emotion recognition, and that a high number of violent assaults was associated with decreased accuracy in perspective taking for angry scenes. SCR data showed reduced physiological responses in the offender group specifically for fear and disgust stimuli during emotion recognition and perspective taking. In addition, higher psychopathy scores in the violent offender group were associated with reduced accuracy in affective responsiveness. This is the first study to show that mainly emotion recognition is deficient in violent offenders whereas the other components of empathy are rather unaffected. This divergent impact of violent offending on the subcomponents of empathy suggests that all three empathy components can be targeted by therapeutic interventions separately.     

Mentally disordered violent offenders

Summary The essential result of our study is that crimes of violence committed by mentally ill and by mentally retarded are quantitatively proportional to the number of crimes of violence committed by the total population. In affective psychoses and mental retardation, the risk of committing an act of violence, which had to be calculated on the basis of inexact data, is about 6 in 100 000 approximately, and is one-tenth ofthat for schizophrenia (5 in 10 000). Factors which do not depend on the disorder, especially family and personality factors, seem to be relevant for the disposition to criminality. The disorder itself has different consequences. It generally seems to postpone the manifestation of the act of violence and thus raises the average age of the mentally-ill offenders. The closest connection between the crime motives and the disease can be assumed in depressed and schizophrenic offenders. The personality of the depressed seems to suppress the disposition to commit aggressive offenses with the exception of extended suicide as a combined act of violence and self-destruction. In schizophrenia, certain disturbances which can be found in chronic systematized paranoid syndromes seem to co-determine the motive of the offense, and are likely to favour its manifestation.

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Zusammenfassung Als wesentliches Ergebnis ist herauszuheben, daß die Gewaltkriminaliät Geisteskranker und Geistesschwacher insgesamt quantitativ etwa proportional zur Gewaltkriminalität der Gesamtbevölkerung ist. Das Gewalttäterrisiko für affektive Psychosen und für Schwachsinn, das auf der Basis unzuverlässiger Vergleichszahlen errechnet werden mußte, liegt mit jeweils 6 auf 100 000 um rund eine Zehnerpotenz niedriger als jenes für Schizophrenie (5 auf 10 000). Krankheitsunabhängige Paktoren, insbesondere familiäre und Persönlichkeitsfaktoren, scheinen für die Disposition zur Gewaltkriminalität eine bedeutsame Rolle zu spielen. Die Krankheit selbst wirkt sich sicher unterschiedlich aus. Sie scheint allgemein die Manifestation der Tat zu verzögern und damit das Alter geisteskranker Täter zu erhöhen. Bei depressiven und schizophrenen Tätern ist die engste Verbindung zwischen Tatmotivation und Krankheit zu vermuten. Die Persönlichkeit Depressiver scheint die gesamte Disposition zu Aggressionsdelikten, mit Ausnahme des erweiterten Suicids als Verbindung von Gewalttat und Selbstzerstörung, zu unterdrücken. Bei der Schizophrenie scheinen bestimmte Störungen, die sich im Umkreis der chronischen systematisierten paranoiden Syndrome finden, die Motivation der Tat mitzubestimmen und ihre Manifestation möglicherweise zu begünstigen.

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Résumé Le résultat principal de notre étude est que les violences commises par les malades mentaux et les oligophrènes sont quantitativement proportionnelles aux violences commises par la population générale. Pour les psychoses affectives et l'oligophrénie, le risque d'actes violents, qui a dû être calculé d'après des données inexactes, est, avec 6 sur 100 000, moins élevé d'un dixième que pour la schizophrénie (5 sur 10 000). Les facteurs qui ne dépendent pas de la maladie, en particulier les facteurs familiaux et personnels, paraissent jouer un rôle significatif pour ce qui est de la disposition à la criminalité. La maladie elle-même a des conséquences différentes. De façon générale, elle semble différer la manifestation de l'acte violent et élève ainsi l'âge moyen des délinquants malades mentaux. C'est parmi les délinquants déprimés et schizophrènes que l'on trouve le lien le plus étroit entre les motivations des actes et la maladie. La personnalité du déprimé semble réprimer la disposition aux délits d'agression, à l'exception du suicide qui est alors assimilé à un acte combiné de violence et d'auto-destruction. Dans la schizophrénie, certains troubles, qui appartiennent au domaine des syndromes paranoides chroniques systématisés, semblent co-déterminer les motivations de l'acte et sont susceptibles de favoriser sa manifestation.

     

Sadism and psychopathy in violent and sexually violent offenders

A nonrandom sample (N = 41) of inmates from a maximum security prison were classified as either psychopathic or nonpsychopathic (using the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R)) and violent or sexually violent. Sadism was measured using the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-II (MCMI-II) Scale 6B, the Personality Disorder Examination (PDE) items for sadistic personality disorder, and the sexual sadism criteria of DSM-IV. Psychopaths were found to be significantly more sadistic than nonpsychopaths (MCMI-II and PDE). Overall power was relatively high. Sadism did not differentiate the violent and sexually violent groups. A diagnosis of sexual sadism was too infrequent (n = 3) for meaningful statistical analysis. The trait measures of sadism and psychopathy measures (PCL-R, Factor 1 and Factor 2) significantly and positively correlated. Results provide further empirical validity for the theoretically proposed and clinically observed relationship between sadistic traits and psychopathic personality.     

Risk of repeat offending among violent female offenders with psychotic and personality disorders

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the rate of criminal recidivism among female homicide offenders evaluated by forensic psychiatrists, to compare this rate with that of other violent female offenders, and to analyze the explanatory variables of recidivism. METHOD: This was a retrospective study of all women (N=132) sent for forensic psychiatric examination after being convicted of homicide or attempted homicide in Finland during 1982-1992; subjects were followed up until mid-1999. Data were collected from the national crime register, the prisoner record, and Statistics Finland. The authors compared the rate of violent repeat offending in this group with that of other violent women and analyzed the explanatory variables of recidivism. RESULTS: During the follow-up period, 23% of the study group committed a repeat offense, 15% of which were violent and 3% of which were homicides. Almost half of all repeat offenses occurred within the first 2 years after the index offense. There was no statistically significant difference in violent recidivism between the study group and other violent female offenders. Of those who committed repeat offenses, 81% were diagnosed with a personality disorder, and 10% were diagnosed with psychosis. Criminality prior to the index event, alcohol or drug dependency, and young age significantly raised the risk and rapidity of further offenses. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of recidivism was high in this study group yet was similar to that of other violent female offenders. The risk was high very early after release. It seems that women and men who are violent and have personality disorders are comparable in their risk of recidivism.     

Mental disturbed violent offenders in Sweden.

Among perpetrators of crimes of violence against persons submitted to psychiatric examination, 16 men with severe mental disorder have been examined by standardized psychologic tests and clinical interviews. Objective anamnestic data have been used to assess social background, individual development and onset of mental disorder. Psychotic as well as nonpsychotic men reacted with violence against threat to the offender's physical existence of his self image. In most instances ego weakness or depleted mental energy exaggerated the feeling of threat or stymied the ability to choose alternative solutions. Abuse of alcohol and narcotics and acute inebriation often weakened self-control and triggered of the act of violence.     

Judicial sentencing considerations in cases of violent offenders versus sexual offenders

The overall aim of this study is to explore the judicial sentencing considerations in South Australian criminal cases of violent offenders versus sexual offenders in order to identify aggravating and mitigating factors. A total of 37 cases involving violent offenders (n = 25) and sexual offenders (n = 12) were downloaded from the Courts Administration Authority of South Australia website and subjected to a retrospective content analysis of the text contained in the published judicial sentencing remarks. The results reveal that offender- and offence-related aggravating factors are more salient judicial sentencing considerations in the cases of the violent offenders, whereas victim-related aggravating factors are more salient judicial considerations in the cases of the sexual offenders. Certain mitigating factors that were seen as salient considerations in the cases of the violent offenders – resulting in reduced culpability and a lighter sentence – appear to have had little impact in the cases of the sexual offenders. The implications of the findings for legal practice, social policy and future research are discussed.     

The predictive quality of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) for violent and sex offenders in Switzerland. A validation study

In Switzerland, the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) is administered rather restrictively for risk assessment of recidivism among violent and sexual offenders. The aim of the present study was a first-time evaluation of the predictive validity of the PCL-R for violent and sexual recidivism in Switzerland. The PCL-R scores of 96 violent and sex offenders were evaluated by collecting the data in their psychiatric expert opinions. The scores were then compared to the rates of recidivism as shown in the criminal records. Consistent with previous studies in North America and Europe, the determined predictive accuracy was satisfying. This degree of precision supports the use of the PCL-R for risk assessment of sexual and violent recidivism in Switzerland, as long as the instrument does not constitute the sole criterion to determine future recidivism, but is applied only in combination with a thorough clinical evaluation. The use of precise cut-off scores did not prove to be a valid criterion for the prognosis of recidivism and can therefore not be recommended for Swiss offenders.     

Psychopathy and violent behaviour in abused and neglected young adults

The interrelationships among early childhood victimisation, psychopathy and violence were examined in a sample of previously abused and neglected individuals (n = 652) and a matched control group (n = 489). Measures of psychopathy, assessed utilising Hare's Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R), and violence (based on official arrest and self-report information) were included in a series of multivariate analyses. Victims of childhood abuse and/or neglect had significantly higher PCL-R scores than persons in a matched control group, despite controls for demographic characteristics and criminal history. PCL-R scores predicted official and self-reported violence. Childhood victimisation was a significant predictor of violence; however, when PCL-R scores were introduced, childhood victimisation was no longer significant. Findings demonstrate a clear connection between early childhood victimisation and psychopathy and suggest that the relationship between childhood victimisation and violence in some individuals may be mediated through psychopathy. A number of potential mechanisms are suggested to explain these linkages. Copyright © 1996 Whurr Publishers Ltd.     

Psychopathy and offence severity in sexually aggressive and violent youth

Background A large proportion of violent crimes are committed by youths. Youths with psychopathic traits may have a higher risk for recidivism and violence. Aims/hypotheses Our aim was to compare sexually aggressive with violent young men on offence severity and psychopathy. Three hypotheses were proposed: first, young men with previous offences would display a progressive increase in seriousness of offence during their criminal career; secondly, the sexually aggressive and violent young men would not differ in scores on the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV); but, thirdly, PCL:YV scores would be positively correlated with the severity of the index crime, as measured by the Cormier–Lang System for Quantifying Criminal History. Methods Information was collected from the files of 40 young men in conflict with the law, and the PCL:Youth Version (YV) rated from this by trained raters. Results The offences of these young men became more serious over time, but we found no association between PCL:YV scores and offence type or seriousness. Conclusions and implications This exploratory research suggests the importance of understanding the progression in offending careers, but a limited role for the PCL:YV in doing so. Given the small sample size, however, and the limit on access to information about details of age, the findings need replication. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Urinary free cortisol secretion in habitually violent offenders

Male violent offenders (n = 90) and residivious arsonists (n = 10) were investigated by urinary (24 h) free cortisol measurements at mental examination on a psychiatric department. The measurements were made with competitive protein-binding radioassay. Only among the habitually violent offenders with antisocial personality were the values low when compared with other violent offenders, antisocial personality without the habitually violent tendency, and male clinic personnel. Poor motivation already in school, truancy, attention deficit and undersocialized aggressive conduct disorder problems seemed to be connected with the low cortisol levels.     

Reduced regional cerebral blood flow in non-psychotic violent offenders

The present study was designed to replicate previously reported findings of abnormal frontal and/or temporal cerebral blood flow in violent offenders and to control for the influence of major mental disorder (MMD), substance abuse, and current medication. HMPAO-SPECT-CBF and MRI scans from pretrial forensic psychiatric investigations of 21 subjects convicted of impulsive violent crimes were retrospectively re-evaluated. In 16/21 subjects, visual assessment of SPECT scans showed some hypoperfusion in the temporal and/or frontal lobes. MRI showed no corresponding structural damage. Quantified regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in defined regions of interest was compared between index cases and 11 healthy control subjects. Index subjects had significant reductions in the right angular gyrus and the right medial temporal gyrus, bilaterally in the hippocampus, and in the left white frontal matter, but they had significantly increased rCBF in the parietal association cortex bilaterally. The aberrations were as frequent and severe among the subjects without MMD, substance abuse, and current medication (n=7) as in the entire group of index subjects.     

Neuronal correlates of personal space intrusion in violent offenders

Personal space (PS) is defined as the imagery region immediately surrounding our body, which acts as safety zone. It has been suggested that PS is enlarged in violent offenders and that this group shows an enhanced sensitivity to the reduction of interpersonal distance. In the present fMRI study high-risk violent offenders and noncriminal controls were presented with photos of neutral facial expressions by men and women. All images were shown twice, as static photos, and animated (i.e., appearing to approach the subject) in order to simulate PS intrusion. Approaching faces generally provoked activation of a fronto-parietal network and the insula. Offenders responded with greater insula activation to approaching faces, especially when the person was male. Insular activation has been recognized before as a neuronal correlate of potential threat and harm detection in PS. The increased reactivity of violent offenders is possibly a result of their hostile attribution bias.     

Persistent regional frontotemporal hypoactivity in violent offenders at follow-up

Since cross-sectional brain-imaging studies demonstrating frontotemporal cerebral hypoactivity in violent offenders have generally been carried out around the time of trial and sentencing, the findings might be influenced by the stressful situation of the subjects. It seems that no group of offenders with this finding has yet been followed longitudinally. We have re-examined nine offenders convicted of lethal or near-lethal violence in whom single photon emission tomography (SPECT) previously had demonstrated frontotemporal hypoperfusion. The mean interval between the initial and the follow-up examination was 4 years. The initially observed hypoactivity was found to have remained virtually unchanged at follow-up: no mean change in the group exceeded 5% in 12 assessed regions of interest. Although preliminary due to the small sample size, this study suggests that frontotemporal brain hypoactivity is a trait rather than a state in perpetrators of severe violent crimes.     

Positron emission tomography in male violent offenders with schizophrenia

The FDG PET brain scans from 31 offenders with schizophrenia and schizoaffecive disorder from a maximum security mental hospital were compared with those of normal controls (N = 6) in terms of relative FDG uptake in a range of regions covering frontal and temporal regions. The patient sample was divided into those who had a history of repetitive violent offending (RVO, N = 17) and those without a repetitive violent history (NRVO, N = 14) according to the violence rating of their pre-admission convictions. Reduced FDG uptake was noted at both the right and left anterior inferior temporal (R and L AIT) regions in NRVOs but only at LAIT in RVOs. NRVOs had significantly lower FDG uptake at RAIT than RVOs. The findings suggest that metabolic changes at AIT may be related to different patterns of violent offending in patients with schizophrenia.     

The civil commitment of pathologically violent sex offenders

This article explores the issues surrounding the Sexually Violent Predator Statute enacted by the Washington state legislature. The statute provides for the confinement of violent and dangerous sex offenders who are also mentally abnormal or psychopathic. As other states are also considering comparable legislation, this article discusses the legal ramifications of such legislation.