Characteristics of Overweight and Obesity at Age Two and the Association with Breastfeeding in Hawai’i Women,Infants, and Children (WIC) Participants

Childhood obesity is associated with many adverse health effects during childhood and is linked to an increased risk for obesity in adulthood. The objective of this study was to determine the characteristics of early childhood overweight and obesity and assess the impact of breastfeeding. Data from Hawai’i’s Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) were analyzed for children 2 years of age born between 2005 and 2009 and their mothers. Childhood overweight and obesity was examined using a log-binomial regression model to estimate prevalence ratios. In the sample population, 12.5 % of children were overweight and 8.5 % of children were obese. Significant differences in childhood overweight and obesity were seen between breastfeeding duration and other socio-demographic groups. Children who were breastfed for 6 months or more had a lower risk of childhood obesity at age two compared to those who were never breastfed (APR 0.79, 95 % CI 0.69–0.91) with adjustment for child race/ethnicity, maternal age, trimester of prenatal care entry, maternal smoking status, and child birth weight. The prevalence of early childhood overweight and obesity is associated with shorter durations of breastfeeding. Early and continued breastfeeding support and education for mothers in the WIC program that improves duration of breastfeeding may help reduce the risk of early childhood obesity.     

Breastfeeding Offers Protection Against Obesity in Children of Recently Immigrated Latina Women

Breastfeeding has been found to have a protective effect on subsequent development of obesity in childhood, particularly in white, non-Hispanic populations. The protective effect of nursing for more than 12 months in children of Latina women is less clear, which may be due to differences in levels of acculturation in previously studied populations. We evaluated the association between breastfeeding for 12 months or more and risk for obesity in a cohort of children of recently immigrated relatively unacculturated Latina mothers. Maternal characteristics at birth, including length of stay in the United States, breastfeeding habits at 4–6 weeks of age, 6 months, and 1 year, and anthropometric measurements were obtained for a cohort of 196 children participating in a prospective study. At 1 year of age 39.0 % of infants were being breastfed. Being breastfed at 1 year of age was associated with a decreased risk of obesity in both univariate (odds ratio (OR) 0.49, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.21–0.83) and multivariate models (OR 0.39, 95 % CI 0.02–0.93) adjusting for maternal BMI, marital status, education level, country of origin, age, years of living in the United States, and child’s birth weight at 3 years of age, regardless of mother’s acculturation status using length of stay in the United States as a proxy for acculturation. The association with breastfeeding persisted at 4 years of age as a protective factor for obesity (OR 0.29, 95 % CI 0.11–0.80). Breastfeeding for longer than 12 months provides a significant protective effect on the development of obesity in early childhood in a cohort of children of high-risk recently immigrated Latina women in San Francisco who were relatively unacculturated to the United States.     

Racial and socioeconomic disparities in breastfeeding--United States, 2004

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends breastfeeding for at least the first year of life, and beyond for as long as mutually desired by mother and child. Not breastfeeding is associated with increased health risks for children, including otitis media, respiratory tract infections, diarrhea, and necrotizing enterocolitis. In addition, breastfeeding duration is inversely associated with risk for childhood overweight. Breastfeeding also is associated with health benefits for mothers, including reduced risk for ovarian cancer and premenopausal breast cancer. Breastfeeding rates differ substantially by race, socioeconomic level, and other demographic factors. For example, among children born during 1982-1993, non-Hispanic black children were less likely than non-Hispanic white children to be breastfed at birth and at age 6 months, even when comparisons were among children in the same socioeconomic or other demographic subgroup. To obtain current estimates of racial and economic disparities in breastfeeding among U.S. children, CDC analyzed data from the 2004 National Immunization Survey (NIS). This report describes the results of that analysis, which indicated that 71.5% of non-Hispanic white children were ever breastfed compared with 50.1% of non-Hispanic black children. Among those ever breastfed, 53.9% of non-Hispanic white and 43.2% of non-Hispanic black children continued breastfeeding until at least age 6 months. Disparities between black and white children existed within most socioeconomic subgroups studied. Public health programs should continue to promote breastfeeding initiation and increase support of breastfeeding continuation, especially among subgroups with the lowest rates (i.e., black, poor, and young mothers; mothers with less than a high school education; and mothers residing in rural areas).     

Breastfeeding, weight gain in infancy, and overweight at seven years of age: the prevention and incidence of asthma and mite allergy birth cohort study

Compared with nonbreastfed children, breastfed children tend to have a lower body mass index (BMI) at about 1 year of age. How the BMI of breastfed children develops after the first year when this difference in BMI at 1 year of age is considered is not clear. The authors studied the association between breastfeeding and BMI development from 1 to 7 years of age independently of BMI at 1 year of age. Longitudinal BMI data reported by parents of 2,347 Dutch children born in 1996-1997 who participated in the Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy birth cohort study were collected. Linear regression and mixed-effects models were used for data analyses. Mean BMI at 1 year of age was 17.2 kg/m(2) (standard deviation, 1.4). Compared with nonbreastfed children, children breastfed for >16 weeks had a lower BMI at 1 year of age, after adjustment for confounders (beta = -0.22, 95% confidence interval: -0.39, -0.06). The association between breastfeeding and BMI between 1 and 7 years of age was negligible, while a high BMI at 1 year of age was strongly associated with a high BMI between 1 and 7 years of age in the same model. These findings suggest that the lower BMI and lower risk of overweight among breastfed children later in life are already achieved at 1 year of age.     

Does breast feeding protect against breast cancer? An epidemiological study]

The association between breastfeeding and the risk of breast cancer was studied as part of a Dutch population-based epidemiological study of the aetiology of female breast cancer. A total of 484 breast cancer patients and 484 controls (matched for age; age range: 20-54 years) were compared with regard to their breastfeeding habits. There was no clear association between breastfeeding and breast cancer risk. After adjustment for confounders women who had ever breastfed had no lower risk of breast cancer than women who never had given breastfeeding. Women who had breastfed for prolonged periods (total lifetime nursing of 44 weeks or more) had, after adjustment for confounders, a 29% lower risk of breast cancer compared to women who had never breastfed, but this risk reduction was not statistically significant. These results do not support the hypothesis that (short) periods of breastfeeding reduce the risk of breast cancer in young women. A possible protective effect of longer periods of breastfeeding, which is suggested more strongly in the literature, could not be investigated in this study because the women breastfed their children for relatively short periods.     

Social determinants of initiation,duration and exclusivity of breastfeeding at the population level: the results of the Longitudinal Study of Child Development in Quebec (ELDEQ 1998-2002)

BACKGROUND: According to Canadian public health recommendations, newborns should be fed exclusively with breast milk during their first 4 to 6 months of life. The aim of this paper is to identify the main social determinants of initiation, duration and exclusivity of breastfeeding from birth to 4 months, at the population level. The results will help the development of public health interventions aimed at improving the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding for at least the first 4 to 6 months of babies' life. METHODS: The analyses were performed with the data of the Longitudinal Study of Child Development in Quebec (ELDEQ 1998-2002). The study follows a representative sample (n = 2,223) of the children born in 1998 in the province of Quebec, in Canada. The relations between breastfeeding (all and exclusive) and mothers' education level, annual family income, family type, parents' working situation and mothers' age group have been evaluated by crude and adjusted odds ratios. Multivariate analyses were used to identify the most influential factors. RESULTS: In 1998, nearly three quarters (72%) of the Quebec newborns were breastfed at birth. When they reached 4 months, only 6% of the Quebec children were exclusively breastfed, thus following public health recommendations. Mothers' education level remains the strongest factor of influence on breastfeeding from birth to 3 months, and its impact increases with baby's age. At 4 months, it is also the most important factor for all breastfeeding, but mothers' age is more important for exclusive breastfeeding. When all the studied factors are considered equal for all children, being breastfed in accordance with public health recommendations, which refers to exclusive breasfeeding for at least 4 months, is mainly influenced by mothers' age, followed by mothers' education level. Family income, family type and parents' working situation do not influence exclusive breastfeeding at 4 months. It should be noted that when considering all breastfed children, if mothers' age and education level are equal, annual family income shows a negative relationship with breastfeeding at any of the studied ages. This negative relationship is also observed at 2 months for exclusive breastfeeding (dollar 40,000-dollar 59,999). CONCLUSION: From a public health perspective, it is important that newborns be breastfed at birth and exclusively breastfed during their first 4 to 6 months of life. The analysis indicates that once the decision to breastfeed is made, different social factors influence the duration of breastfeeding and its exclusivity. Public policy targets are necessary to evaluate whether the situation is improving from one year to another and whether disparities are increasing or decreasing for newborns accumulating the impact of material and social deprivation early in life.     

Infant feeding patterns and risks of death and hospitalization in the first half of infancy: multicentre cohort study

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association of different feeding patterns for infants (exclusive breastfeeding, predominant breastfeeding, partial breastfeeding and no breastfeeding) with mortality and hospital admissions during the first half of infancy. METHODS: This paper is based on a secondary analysis of data from a multicentre randomized controlled trial on immunization-linked vitamin A supplementation. Altogether, 9424 infants and their mothers (2919 in Ghana, 4000 in India and 2505 in Peru) were enrolled when infants were 18-42 days old in two urban slums in New Delhi, India, a periurban shanty town in Lima, Peru, and 37 villages in the Kintampo district of Ghana. Mother-infant pairs were visited at home every 4 weeks from the time the infant received the first dose of oral polio vaccine and diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus at the age of 6 weeks in Ghana and India and at the age of 10 weeks in Peru. At each visit, mothers were queried about what they had offered their infant to eat or drink during the past week. Information was also collected on hospital admissions and deaths occurring between the ages of 6 weeks and 6 months. The main outcome measures were all-cause mortality, diarrhoea-specific mortality, mortality caused by acute lower respiratory infections, and hospital admissions. FINDINGS: There was no significant difference in the risk of death between children who were exclusively breastfed and those who were predominantly breastfed (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) = 1.46; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.75-2.86). Non-breastfed infants had a higher risk of dying when compared with those who had been predominantly breastfed (HR = 10.5; 95% CI = 5.0-22.0; P < 0.001) as did partially breastfed infants (HR = 2.46; 95% CI = 1.44-4.18; P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: There are two major implications of these findings. First, the extremely high risks of infant mortality associated with not being breastfed need to be taken into account when informing HIV-infected mothers about options for feeding their infants. Second, our finding that the risks of death are similar for infants who are predominantly breastfed and those who are exclusively breastfed suggests that in settings where rates of predominant breastfeeding are already high, promotion efforts should focus on sustaining these high rates rather than on attempting to achieve a shift from predominant breastfeeding to exclusive breastfeeding.     

Breastfeeding and obesity in school-age children from families of high socioeconomic status

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between breastfeeding and obesity in school-age children from Brazilian families of high socioeconomic status. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted including 555 students aged six to 14 years from a private school in the city of Sao Paulo. Obesity - the outcome variable - was defined as body mass index at or above the 85th centile plus sub scapular and triceps skin folds at or above the 90th centile using the sex and age specific standards of the US National Center for Health Statistics. Exposure was the frequency and duration of breastfeeding. Potential confounders, controlled for using multiple logistic regression, included child sex, age, birthweight, and dietary and physical activity patterns, and maternal age, body mass index, schooling, and practice of sports or physical exercise. RESULTS: Prevalence of obesity in the studied population was 26%. After confounder adjustment, the risk of obesity in children that had never been breastfed was twice that of other children (OR=2.06; 95% CI: 1.02; 4.16). There was no dose-response effect of duration of breastfeeding on prevalence of child obesity. CONCLUSIONS: Children who were never breastfed showed greater prevalence of obesity at school age. The absence of a dose-response effect in the relationship between duration of breastfeeding and prevalence of obesity and the still controversial findings regarding this association reported by other authors indicate a need for further studies on the subject, in particular studies with longitudinal design.     

Breastfeeding and Risk of Breast Cancer: Case-Control Study

The aim of this study was to investigate a possible association of breast cancer occurrence in women with their breastfeeding experience. A matched case-control study was conducted in Kragujevac, Serbia. A total of 382 women (191 cases with breast cancer and 191 controls) were interviewed, but the data were explored on breastfeeding and breast cancer only among parous women (339 women). Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) as estimates of the relative risk of breast cancer. Compared with controls, significantly more cases ever breastfed [adjusted OR (OR_adj) = 2.90, 95 percent confidence interval (95 percent CI) 1.02–8.22], breastfed all their children (OR_adj = 2.93; 95 percent CI 1.03–8.29), and had longer lifetime duration of breastfeeding (OR_adj = 3.44, 95 percent CI 1.15–10.24 for 13 or more months). In comparison with controls, significantly more cases breastfed at first birth (OR_adj = 3.17, 95 percent CI 1.36–7.37). Breast cancer risk increased if first breastfeeding occurred at an older age (p for trend = .042) and with longer duration of breastfeeding (p for trend = .037). Our study is one of the few in which breastfeeding was found to be a risk factor for breast cancer.     

Breastfeeding and the introduction of solids in Australian infants: data from the 2001 National Health Survey

OBJECTIVE: To present estimates on rates of breastfeeding and timing of introduction of solid foods to Australian children, 1998-2001. METHODS: Analysis of data from the 2001 Australian National Health Survey (NHS) using lifetable methods. Infant feeding questions were asked by personal interview in respect to 1,883 children aged under three years of age. RESULTS: At discharge from hospital, 83.3% of infants were breastfeeding, which is similar to estimates from the 1995 NHS. At 13 weeks postpartum, 64.3% were breastfeeding, 49.0% at 25 weeks and 24.9% were continuing to breastfeed at one year. At 25 weeks, 18.4% of infants were fully breastfed. Solid food was being offered regularly to 15.2% of infants at 13 weeks and 88.0% by 26 weeks. CONCLUSION: Fewer than 50% of infants are receiving breast milk at six months, which is considerably lower than the 80% figure recommended by the latest Dietary Guidelines for Children and Adolescents. Very few Australian infants are being exclusively breastfed for the recommended six months. Infant feeding practices in Australia appear to have remained unchanged between 1995 and 2001.     

Breastfeeding and cognitive development in the first 2 years of life

The relationship between breastfeeding and cognitive development in the first 2 years of life was examined in a cohort of children being followed in a study of risk factors in development. A significant difference between bottlefed children, children breastfed less than or equal to 4 months and those breastfed greater than 4 months was found on the Mental Development Index of the Bayley Scales at ages 1 and 2 years, favoring the breastfed children. At age 6 months, the direction of the relationship was the same but did not reach significance. Supplementary regression analyses examining the strength of the relationship between duration of breastfeeding and cognitive development similarly showed a small but significant relationship between duration of breastfeeding and scores on the Bayley at 1 and 2 years. Alternative explanations for the results are discussed.     

母乳喂养持续时间与学龄前儿童超重和肥胖的关联性分析

目的 分析宝鸡地区母乳喂养持续时间与学龄前儿童超重和肥胖的关系,为预防宝鸡地区儿童超重和肥胖提供科学依据。方法 以2015年8月-2016年12月在宝鸡市妇幼保健院进行预防接种的3 586名3~6岁学龄前儿童作为研究对象。采用问卷调查获得学龄前儿童的母乳喂养情况,测量学龄前儿童的身高和体重,了解学龄前儿童的体格发育情况。通过Logistic回归分析计算母乳喂养持续时间与学龄前儿童超重和肥胖患病风险的OR值和95%的可信区间(CI)。结果 超重和肥胖患病率分别为12.5%和9.8%,母乳喂养持续时间与学龄前儿童超重和肥胖的患病风险呈负相关,母乳喂养≥12个月的学龄前儿童超重和肥胖的患病风险是未经母乳喂养的学龄前儿童的0.58倍。结论 较长时间的母乳喂养是学龄前儿童超重和肥胖的保护因素,应提倡长时间的母乳喂养,预防学龄前儿童超重和肥胖的发生。     

Breastfeeding, introduction of complementary foods, and adiposity at 5 y of age

BACKGROUND: Although dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is considered the most accurate measure of adiposity in children, it has rarely been used to examine the relation between infant feeding and adiposity during childhood. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to ascertain whether adiposity at age 5 y was related to breastfeeding, to the timing of the introduction of complementary foods during infancy, or to both. DESIGN: Body composition was measured in 313 children at age 5 y by using DXA. Data on breastfeeding, formula feeding, and the timing of the introduction of complementary foods were obtained from the mothers when the children were 3 y old. Regression analysis was used to examine the relation between infant feeding and fat mass after adjustment for lean body mass, sex, birth weight, maternal obesity, race, and other sociodemographic variables. RESULTS: Fifty-three percent of the children were boys, 80% were white, and 20% were black. There was no significant difference in adjusted fat mass between those ever breastfed and those never breastfed (x +/- SE: 4.48 +/- 0.09 and 4.76 +/- 0.17 kg, respectively; P = 0.17). Children who were breastfed for a longer duration and those who were breastfed without concurrent formula feeding did not have significantly lower fat mass than did those children who were never breastfed. Children did not differ significantly in fat mass if they were introduced to complementary foods before or after 4 mo of age (4.49 +/- 0.12 and 4.63 +/- 0.12 kg, respectively; P = 0.42). CONCLUSION: Neither breastfeeding nor the timing of the introduction of complementary foods was associated with adiposity at age 5 y.     

Breastfeeding is associated with lower body mass index among children of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of breastfeeding and overweight in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and the relationship between the two. DESIGN AND METHODS: A random cluster survey of 420 children (aged 6 months to 10 years), was conducted in the CNMI in June and July of 2005. Children were measured for weight and height and caregivers were asked about past feeding habits by trained investigators. RESULTS: Seventy-three percent of children were ever breastfed; 53% were still breastfed at 6 months, and 22% at 1 year of age. Five percent of children were found to be underweight (<5th percentile), while 15% were at risk for overweight (85th to <95th percentile) and 19% were overweight (>95th percentile), according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention body mass index for age reference data. Children who had been breastfed had a substantially lower body mass index than children who had not breastfed, after adjusting for age, sex, birthweight, and years of mother's education. DISCUSSION: These findings will be used to guide program development in the CNMI.     

Frühkindliche Ernährung und späteres Adipositasrisiko1

Metabolic factors acting during limited and sensitive time periods of pre- and postnatal development can induce lasting effects on health and disease risk in later life up to old age, including later obesity risk, which is referred to as early metabolic programming of long-term health. Three meta-analyses of observational studies found that obesity risk at school age was reduced with early breastfeeding compared to formula feeding. We assumed that breastfeeding protects against later obesity by reducing the occurrence of high weight gain in infancy and that one causative factor is the lower protein content of human milk compared to usual infant formulas (the “early protein hypothesis”). We are testing this hypothesis in the European Childhood Obesity Project, a double-blind, randomized clinical trial enrolling 1,678 infants in five countries (Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain). We have randomized healthy infants born at term to receive for the first year infant formula and follow-on formula with higher or lower protein contents, respectively. The follow-up data obtained at age 2 years indicates that feeding formula with reduced protein content normalizes early growth relative to a breastfed reference group and the current WHO growth standard, which may furnish a significant long-term protection against later obesity. We conclude that infant feeding practice has a high potential for long-term health effects. The results obtained should stimulate the review of recommendations and policies for infant formula composition.     

母亲孕期增重及婴儿喂养方式与儿童肥胖的相关性分析

目的分析母亲孕期增重和婴儿的喂养方式与儿童肥胖之间的关系,为制定降低儿童肥胖率的相关措施提供参考。方法选取湖北省江陵县人民医院所在区域内的4家幼儿园中的951名儿童及其家长作为研究对象,采用问卷调查的方式对儿童及母亲的孕期情况进行调查。调查的内容包括:儿童的身高、体重、婴儿喂养方式等。采用单因素分析和多因素Logistic回归分析儿童肥胖与母亲孕期增重和婴儿喂养方式之间的关系。结果发放调查问卷951份,收回有效调查问卷940份,调查问卷的回收率为98.84%。受访儿童中肥胖的发生率为10.00%(94/940)。单因素分析结果表明,母亲孕期体重增加>15 kg的儿童肥胖发生率高于孕期体重增加未超过15 kg的儿童,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05),婴儿6个月内纯母乳喂养的儿童肥胖率低于未进行纯母乳喂养的儿童,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。Logistic回归分析显示,母亲孕期体重增加>15 kg是儿童肥胖的危险因素(P<0.05),婴儿6个月内纯母乳喂养是儿童肥胖的保护因素(P<0.05)。结论母亲孕期体重增加>15 kg和婴儿6个月内纯母乳喂养是儿童肥胖的影响因素,应引导孕妇适当控制体重增长,鼓励产妇采用纯母乳喂养婴儿,降低儿童肥胖发生率。     

Association between sociodemographic characteristics and age stopped breastfeeding on early childhood weight status

IntroductionEpidemiological studies have suggested that breastfeeding is associated with child weight status. However, the length of breastfeeding in relation to child weight remains poorly understood. Therefore, this study investigated the association between age stopped breastfeeding and child weight status by sociodemographic characteristics.MethodsThis cross-sectional analysis utilized a nationally representative sample of 3248 U.S. children ages 2–6 years from 2009 to 2018, from parents interviewed as part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Child body weight and height were measured during physical examination. Information on age stopped breastfeeding and other demographic characteristics were assessed using questionnaires. Multivariable logistic regression models were performed to examine the association between age stopped breastfeeding and child weight status, adjusting for potential confounders.ResultsChildren breastfed for ≤ 11 months had an increased odds of being overweight and obese with the strongest association observed among those classified as obese (OR=2.12; 95%CI 1.23, 3.64) compared with children breastfed for > 11–24 months. The association between breastfeeding and child weight status was observed by racial/ethnic groups. Non-Hispanic white and Black children breastfed for ≤ 11 months had an associated increased likelihood of being overweight than their counterparts breastfed for > 11–24 months. Among Hispanic children, we observed elevated odds of being obese when breastfed for ≤ 11 months (OR=1.98; 95%CI 1.00, 3.91) than those breastfed for > 11–24 months.ConclusionChild weight status was associated with age stopped breastfeeding, where likelihood of being overweight and obese were greatest among children breastfed for ≤ 11 months.     

The effect of breastfeeding on children's educational test scores at nine years of age: results of an Irish cohort study

This retrospective cross-sectional paper examines the relationship between early breastfeeding exposure and children's academic test scores at nine years of age independent of a wide range of possible confounders. The final sample comprised 8226 nine-year-old school children participating in the first wave of the Growing Up in Ireland study. The children were selected through the Irish national school system using a 2-stage sampling method and were representative of the nine-year population. Information relating to breastfeeding initiation and exposure duration was obtained retrospectively at nine years of age via parental recall and children's academic performance was assessed using standardised reading and mathematics tests. Hierarchical linear regression analysis with robust standard errors to control for clustering at the school level was used to quantify the effect of breastfeeding on children's test scores. Propensity score matching was used to compare treatment effects across groups defined by their propensity to breastfeed. In unadjusted analysis, children who were breastfed scored 8.67 percentage points higher on reading and 7.42 percentage points higher on mathematics compared to those who were never breastfed. While the breastfeeding advantage attenuated appreciably when adjusted for a range of child, maternal, socio-economic and socio-environmental characteristics, children who were breastfed continued to enjoy a significant test score advantage of 3.24 (p<0.001) and 2.23 (p<0.001) percentage points on reading and mathematics respectively compared to those who were never breastfed. Any amount of breastfeeding was associated with significantly higher test scores than no exposure, but evidence of a dose-response relationship was weak. The results of the propensity score matching analysis indicated that the test score advantage of breastfed children is robust and that the magnitude of the effect varies across groups defined by their propensity to breastfeed, being largest amongst the most socially disadvantaged and falling to near zero among the most advantaged group.     

Respiratory symptoms and illnesses among brick kiln workers: a cross sectional study from rural districts of Pakistan

Background

Breastfeeding has been shown consistently in observational studies to be protective of overweight and obesity in later life. This study aimed to investigate the association between breastfeeding duration and weight status in a national sample of Australian children and adolescents.

Methods

A secondary analysis of the 2007 Australian National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey data involving 2066, males and females aged 9 to 16 years from all Australian states and territories. The effect of breastfeeding duration on weight status was estimated using multivariate logistic regression analysis.

Results

Compared to those who were never breastfed, children breastfed for ??6 months were significantly less likely to be overweight (adjusted odds ratio: 0.64, 95%CI: 0.45, 0.91) or obese (adjusted odds ratio: 0.51, 95%CI: 0.29, 0.90) in later childhood, after adjustment for maternal characteristics (age, education and ethnicity) and children's age, gender, mean energy intake, level of moderate and vigorous physical activity, screen time and sleep duration.

Conclusions

Breastfeeding for 6 or more months appears to be protective against later overweight and obesity in this population of Australian children. The beneficial short-term health outcomes of breastfeeding for the infant are well recognised and this study provides further observational evidence of a potential long-term health outcome and additional justification for the continued support and promotion of breastfeeding to six months and beyond.     

Early Childhood Healthy and Obese Weight Status: Potentially Protective Benefits of Breastfeeding and Delaying Solid Foods

The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between breastfeeding and postponing introduction to solid food (SF) on children’s obesity and healthy weight status (WS), at 2 and 4 years. Drawing upon a nationally representative sample of children from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort, we estimated the magnitude of the relationship between children’s WS and early feeding practices. Contingency tables and multinomial logistic regression were used to analyze obese and healthy WS for breastfed and never breastfed children and examine three timing categories for SF introduction. With both percentages and odds, breastfeeding and delaying introduction to SF until 4 months were associated with lower obesity rates and higher, healthy WS rates (typically 5–10 %). Analyses of feeding practice combinations revealed that when children were not breastfed, obesity odds decreased when SF introduction was postponed until 4 months. Obesity odds were further reduced when SF delay was combined with breastfeeding. Consistent increases in healthy WS were also observed. Benefits were stable across both follow-up periods. Breastfeeding and delaying complementary foods yielded consistently and substantially lower likelihood of obesity and greater probability of healthy WS. Health policies targeting early feeding practices represent promising interventions to decrease preschool obesity and promote healthy WS.