Validation of the problem gambling severity index using confirmatory factor analysis and rasch modelling

The Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), a screening tool used to measure the severity of gambling problems in general population research, was subjected to confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch modelling to (a) confirm the one‐factor structure; (b) assess how well the items measure the continuum of problem gambling severity; (c) identify sources of differential item functioning among relevant subpopulations of gamblers. Analyses were conducted on a nationally representative sample of over 25,000 gamblers compiled by merging data from the Canadian Community Health Survey and Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI) integrated datasets. Results provided support for a one‐factor model that was invariant across gender, age, income level, and gambler type. Rasch modelling revealed a well‐fitting, unidimensional model with no miss‐fitting items. The average severity assessed by the PGSI is consistent with moderately severe problem gambling. The PGSI is therefore weak in assessing low to moderate problem severity, a notable limitation of most brief gambling screens. Evidence of clinically significant differential item functioning was found with only one item, borrowing money to gamble, which behaved differently in gamblers who play electronic gaming machines or casino games compared to gamblers who avoid these games. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Internet Gambling: An Online Empirical Study Among Student Gamblers

It has been noted that the introduction of the Internet to gambling activities may change some of the fundamental situational and structural characteristics and make them potentially more addictive and/or problematic. This study examined some of the differences between Internet gamblers and non-Internet gamblers. Based on past literature it was hypothesised that (1) males would be significantly more likely to be Internet gamblers than females, (2) Internet gamblers would be significantly more likely to be problem gamblers than non-Internet gamblers, and (3) males would be significantly more likely to be problem Internet gamblers than females. A self-selected sample of 473 student respondents (213 males; 260 females) aged between 18 and 52 years (mean age  = 22 years; SD = 5.7 years) participated in an online survey. All three hypotheses were confirmed. The results suggest the structural and situational characteristics of Internet gambling may be having a negative psychosocial impact on Internet gambling. This is most notably because of increased number of gambling opportunities, convenience, 24-h access and flexibility, increased event frequencies, smaller intervals between gambles, instant reinforcements, and the ability to forget gambling losses by gambling again immediately. It is suggested that further research needs to be carried out into the effects that the Internet has in facilitating gambling behaviour.     

Chasing losses in online poker and casino games: Characteristics and game play of Internet gamblers at risk of disordered gambling

Disordered Internet gambling is a psychological disorder that represents an important public health issue due to the increase in highly available and conveniently accessible Internet gambling sites. Chasing losses is one of the few observable markers of at-risk and problem gambling that may be used to detect early signs of disordered Internet gambling. This study examined loss chasing behaviour in a sample of Internet casino and poker players and the socio-demographic variables, irrational beliefs, and gambling behaviours associated with chasing losses. An online survey was completed by 10,838 Internet gamblers (58% male) from 96 countries. The results showed that Internet casino players had a greater tendency to report chasing losses than poker players and gamblers who reported chasing losses were more likely to hold irrational beliefs about gambling and spend more time and money gambling than those who reported that they were unaffected by previous losses. Gamblers who played for excitement and to win money were more likely to report chasing losses. This study is one of the largest ever studies of Internet gamblers and the results are highly significant as they provide insight into the characteristics and behaviours of gamblers using this mode of access.     

Internet Gambling Behavior in a Sample of Online Gamblers

The present study examined Internet gambling behavior in a sample of online gamblers. Participants (N = 563; 382 male; ages 18–over 65) were recruited from a banner placed in an online newsletter. Questionnaires were completed online and assessed demographic information, game-play patterns (e.g., frequency, duration, wagering), preferred type of play, and problem gambling (using the DSM-IV). In addition, participation in gambling-type games without money was also examined. Seventy-seven percent of respondents reported playing gambling-type games without money and 42% reported gambling on the Internet. Twenty-three percent of participants were identified as problem gamblers. Problem gamblers were significantly more likely than social gamblers to spend more time gambling per session, gamble alone, from school, or with a cell phone, gamble with more money, wager online while consuming alcohol or illicit drugs, and lose more money gambling online. These results hint at a disturbing and difficult relationship between the Internet and individuals with gambling problems.

Internet Gambling, Health, Smoking and Alcohol Use: Findings from the 2007 British Gambling Prevalence Survey

This study provides analysis of a representative national sample of Internet gamblers. Using participant data from the 2007 British Gambling Prevalence Survey (n = 9003 adults aged 16 years and over), all participants who had gambled online, bet online, and/or who had used a betting exchange in the last 12 months (6% of the total sample) were compared with all other gamblers who had not gambled via the Internet (62% of the sample). Results showed that Internet gambling and non-Internet gambling had a significant association with smoking (nicotine) and drinking (alcohol). Self-reported general health status was not significantly associated with Internet gambling but was significantly associated with offline gambling. Analysis of DSM-IV scores showed that problem gambling prevalence rate was significantly higher among Internet gamblers than non-Internet gamblers (5% versus 0.5%) and that Internet gamblers were significantly more likely to endorse individual DSM-IV items compared to non-Internet gamblers.     

Comorbid Axis I-disorders among subjects with pathological,problem, or at-risk gambling recruited from the general population in Germany: Results of the PAGE study

The aim of the present study was to analyze comorbid Axis I-disorders in a sample of individuals with at-risk, problem, and pathological gambling. A number of 164 adult gamblers derived from a random sample of 15,023 individuals were compared with a general population sample. The lifetime prevalence of any psychiatric disorder was 93.6% among pathological (five–10 criteria), 83.5% among problem (three or four criteria), and 81.0% among at-risk gamblers (one or two criteria). Substance use disorders were the most common comorbid disorders in gamblers. Logistic regression analyses revealed elevated odds ratios for having a comorbid disorder in at-risk (Conditional Odds Ratio (COR) 3.5, Confidence Interval (CI) 2.6–4.6), problem (COR 4.9, CI 3.3–7.3), and pathological gamblers (COR 4.6, CI 3.0–6.9) compared to the general population. No significant differences were found between at-risk and problem gamblers or problem and pathological gamblers. Compared to at-risk gamblers, pathological gamblers showed elevated rates of comorbid substance use disorders. The data suggest a linear association between gambling disorder severity and comorbid Axis I-disorders. In conclusion, comorbid disorders are very prevalent in individuals with gambling problems. Even at-risk gamblers with one or two DSM-IV criteria show high rates of Axis I-disorders. Therefore, this group should be included in further studies on problematic gambling.     

A comparison of fraud to fund gambling with fraud for other reasons

In order to compare the characteristics, including diagnosed mental disorder, of people who commit fraud offences to fund gambling with those who committed fraud for other reasons, we examined a complete series of reports prepared for legal proceedings by two of the authors from between January 2002 and June 2019. A total of 160 fraud offenders were located, of whom 48 (30%) reported offending to fund gambling. Females made up 47.5% of the total sample and 43.8% of the gamblers. Of the problem gambling group, 44% had diagnoses of anxiety or depression, 44% had substance use disorder, 17% had bipolar and other psychosis, and 38% reported childhood trauma. There were no significant differences in the frequencies of diagnosis of mental illness or previous criminal convictions compared to the non-gambling group. Two thirds reported only gambling on poker machines. Only 19% of gamblers reported seeking treatment prior to being charged.     

Problem Gambling in Early Adulthood: a Population-Based Study

The aims of this study were to investigate stability of problem gambling between 20 and 24 years of age, and the antecedents and consequences of problem gambling at age 20 years. Young adult participants in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) completed computer-administered gambling surveys on paper, or online. Responses to the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) were complete for 2624 participants at 20 years, and 1921 participants at 24 years. Responses were categorized into ‘non-problem’ (71–78%), ‘low-risk gambling’ (16–21%), ‘moderate-risk gambling’ (4–5.5%), and ‘problem gambling’ (1–1.5%). The overall frequency of moderate-risk/problem gambling varied little between age 20 and 24 years, and scratch cards, online betting and gambling were the most frequent activities. Problem gamblers at age 20 years had a history of hyperactivity and conduct problems in adolescence, high sensation seeking, and an external locus of control. They were more likely to have mothers who had problems with gambling, reported less parental supervision, and higher social media usage. Moderate-risk/problem gambling at age 20 years was associated with regular cigarette smoking, high levels of illicit drug use, and problematic use of alcohol at age 24 years. A significant minority of young adults (mainly males) showed problem gambling behaviours which appeared to be established by the age of 20 years and were associated with other potentially addictive behaviours.

     

Is There a Continuum of Behavioural Dependence in Problem Gambling? Evidence from 15 Years of Australian Prevalence Research

A common assumption in many public frameworks is that the harms and behavioural risk factors associated with gambling disorder lie on a continuum. At one end is lower risk or recreational gambling, and at the other, problem or disordered gambling. Movements along this continuum are associated with gradual increases or decreases in the level of behaviour and associated harm. This perspective is often advanced in opposition to more clinical or categorical frameworks that view problem gambling as a distinct clinical category from the other groups. In this paper, we investigate these competing perspectives with reference to 15 years of Australian prevalence studies. We examine the relationship between PGSI severity classifications and the endorsement of the principal criteria of the DSM-5 (e.g. tolerance, chasing, impaired control). The results showed that while elements of behavioural dependence increase across the PGSI categories (low to moderate to problem), problem gamblers have disproportionately greater endorsement. The PGSI severity and behavioural dependence relationship corresponds more strongly to a J-curve than a linear or r-curve and therefore lends greater support of a more categorical conceptualisation of the disorder.

     

Online Data Collection From Gamblers: Methodological Issues

The paper outlines the advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet to collect data from gamblers, predominantly online gamblers. Drawing from experience of a number of studies carried out online by the authors and by reviewing the available literature, the authors discuss the main issues concerning data collected using computers and the Internet. The paper examines a number of areas including; recruiting and utilising participants, validity, suitable methods of data collection (i.e., questionnaire studies, online tests, participant observation, online interviews) and ethical issues. It is concluded that online research methods can be a useful way of examining the psychosocial aspects of online gambling and in some cases even traditional gambling activities.

Texas Hold’em Online Poker: A Further Examination

Playing Texas Hold??em Online Poker (THOP) is on the rise. However, there is relatively little research examining factors that contribute to problem gambling in poker players. The aim of this study was to extend the research findings of Hopley and Nicki (2010). The negative mood states of depression, anxiety and stress were found to be linked to problem gambling; yet, the contribution of each factor was not independently assessed. In addition, skill may be particularly important for poker players. Therefore, the effects of two potential contributing factors, yearly monetary earnings and locus of control, on problem gambling were investigated. Participants were self-selected online poker players (N?=?62) who completed an online survey. Results revealed that participants played an average of 16?h per week. Furthermore, 11.5% of the sample was classified as problem gamblers according to the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. Problem gambling was uniquely predicted by time played, the negative emotion of stress, and locus of control.     

An Exploratory Study of Problem Gambling on Casino Versus Non-casino Electronic Gaming Machines

Electronic gaming machines (EGMs) have been frequently associated with problem gambling. Little research has compared the relative contribution of casino EGMs versus non-casino EGMs on current problem gambling, after controlling for demographic factors and gambling behaviour. Our exploratory study obtained data from questionnaires administered to a convenient, non-representative New Zealand sample of 138 problem gamblers (66 male, 70 female) and 73 non-problem gamblers (41 male, 32 female) categorized by scores on the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). Age groups ranged from 20 to 60+ years. Of 11 gambling activities, only gambling on EGMs in casinos and EGMs in pubs and clubs distinguished problem gamblers from non-problem gamblers. There were some significant interactions between marital status and types of gambling activities on problem gambling status. From multivariate logistic regression analysis, gambling on EGMs in pubs and clubs was a stronger, unique predictor of current problem gambling than EGMs in casinos, after controlling for demographic factors and total gambling activities. We suggest directions for future large-scale research and interventions for reducing the harm of gambling on non-casino EGMs.     

Characteristics and Predictors of Problem Gambling on the Internet

Internet gambling participation is rapidly increasing, however little is known about potential links between internet gambling and problem gambling. This study examined the predictors of online problem gambling and whether these differed from established predictors of offline problem gambling. Data were obtained online in response to posts on 32 international gambling websites (n?=?1,119). Potential correlates included demographic questions, gambling activities, frequency of gambling, and reasons for gambling online. Multinomial logistic regression revealed that compared to non-problem gamblers, online problem gamblers were more likely to be male, smoke cigarettes, gamble alone, have a disability, lie about their age online, gamble online for more than 4 h at a time, engage in two or more online gambling activities regularly, gamble after a near miss, and drink alcohol while gambling online. Therefore, characteristics predictive of offline problem gambling are similar to those predicting online problem gambling. As a result online gambling could potentially be problematic for those individuals who have problems with gambling more generally.     

A Theoretical Model of EGM Problem Gambling: More than a Cognitive Escape

Although electronic gaming machine (EGM) gambling is established as a particularly risky form of gambling (Dowling, Smith and Thomas, Addiction 100:33–45, 2005), models of problem gambling continue to be generalist so factors and processes specific to EGM gambling can be overlooked. This study conducted semi-structured interviews with 13 EGM problem gamblers and six gambling counsellors and used grounded theory methods to develop a theoretical model of EGM problem gambling. The final model demonstrates the importance of both situational and structural characteristics in maintaining excessive EGM gambling. Originally a harmless pastime, EGM gambling became a means by which gamblers cognitively and physically avoided problems. EGM venues were highly accessible, had an inviting atmosphere, and were private yet companionable. Games were entertaining and distracting. Maladaptive coping habits, low social support and few alternative social spaces contributed to the reliance on gambling.     

Fréquence et facteurs de risque du jeu pathologique chez une population de joueurs à Casablanca

Introduction

Pathological gambling is a major psychiatric disorder and a public health problem that has gained a lot of attention in the last few years. The problems caused by gambling are increasingly serious. The prevalence of pathological or compulsive gambling varies from 0.8 to 2% in Europe, Canada and the USA.

Aim of the study

A study has been conducted in different gambling spots in Casablanca to measure the frequency of pathological gambling in Morocco and to determine the risk factors and the socio-cultural factors associated with it.

Design of the study

The collection of data was conducted in the most frequented gambling spots. The first part of the questionnaire permitted the gathering of the sociodemographic characteristics and drug addictions as well as the psychiatric and legal histories. The detection and diagnosis of pathological gambling was conducted using through the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOCS) questionnaire, which has been translated to Arabic to suit the needs of the study.

Participants in the study

Two hundred men were retained out of the 243 interviewed, which represent a participation rate of 82%. The frequency of pathological gambling among a population of gamblers is 53%. The mean age of the sample was 42.3 more or less 10.70 years. Thirty-six percent of those interviewed had a monthly income of less than 2000 dirhams (200 euros). Horse and greyhound racing were the most popular forms of gambling among those interviewed, with rates of 91 and 60% respectively. Individuals with an educational level of no more than primary school, a monthly income of less than 5000 dirhams (500 euros), a personal psychiatric history, and a drug addiction, are most risky to be pathological gamblers.

Conclusion

The topic pathological gambling has been studied very little in Arab and Islamic countries, and it is necessary to conduct larger epidemiological studies on the general population to inquire about its prevalence, risk factors as well as its psychiatric characteristics.     

A Mutual Support Group for Young Problem Gamblers

A Swedish mutual support group for young problem gamblers is described and discussed. During the study period, 116 weekly meetings occurred, usually involving six to ten participants; in total, 69 problem gamblers (66 male and three female), aged 17?C25, and 23 partners and friends attended the meetings. Half the gamblers had problems with Internet poker, one fifth with electronic gambling machines, and the rest with other forms of gambling and computer gaming. Nearly half the problem gamblers participated in under five mutual support meetings, while just over a third attended ten or more meetings. Gambling problems ceased or lessened among most participants in ten or more meetings. In some cases, attending just one or a few meetings had a positive impact on the problems. This mutual support group provides relatively effective help to adolescents and young adults with gambling problems, offering a valuable alternative and complement to professional treatment.     

What Differentiates Professional Poker Players from Recreational Poker Players? A Qualitative Interview Study

The popularity of poker (and in particular online poker) has increasingly grown worldwide in recent years. This increase in the popularity of poker has led to the increased incidence of the ‘professional poker player’. However, very little empirical research has been carried out into this relatively new group of gamblers. The aim was to determine how professional poker players are able to make a living from playing poker and what differentiates them from recreational poker players. This research comprised a grounded theory study involving the analysis of data from three professional poker players, one semi-professional poker player and five recreational poker players. Using a process of open coding, focused coding and theoretical sampling, in addition to constant comparison of the data, a number of themes and categories emerged. The central theme as to what distinguishes professional poker players from recreational players was that professional poker players were much more disciplined in their gambling behaviour. They treated their poker playing as work, and as such were more likely to be logical and controlled in their behaviour, took less risks, and were less likely to chase losses. Recreational players were more likely to engage in chasing behaviour, showed signs of lack of control, took more risks, and engaged in gambling while under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Also of importance was the number of games and time spent playing online. Recreational players only played one or two games at a time, whereas professional poker players were much more likely to engage in multi-table poker online, and played longer sessions, thus increasing the potential amount of winnings. Playing poker for a living is very possible for a minority of players but it takes a combination of talent, dedication, patience, discipline and disposition to succeed.     

Online Poker Gambling in University Students: Further Findings from an Online Survey

Online poker is one of the fastest growing forms of online gambling yet there has been relatively little research to date. This study comprised 422 online poker players (362 males and 60 females) and investigated some of the predicting factors of online poker success and problem gambling using an online questionnaire. Results showed that length of time as a player was positively correlated with the number of days playing per year, length of poker sessions, and financial success. However, length of time playing did not correlate with either score on DSM-IV problem gambling criteria or perceived skill. Using a stepwise multiple regression, predictors of winning play and financial success among the online players were examined. Those players who were more likely to have financial success were: (1) disciplined and avoided spending over their monthly gambling budget; (2) played at higher stake levels; (3) did not over-estimate the skill involved in poker; and (4) perceived themselves to be more skilful. A further multiple regression examined predictors of problem gambling. Results showed that problem online poker players were (1) more likely to swap genders when playing online; (2) undisciplined and spent over their allocated budget; and (3) played more frequently for longer periods of time. Even though there is some skill involved in poker, skill was not a predictor in problem gambling. These results are discussed along with implications from the findings for key stakeholders (i.e., the players, gaming industry, policy makers and researchers).