“Errorless” elimination of separation anxiety: A case study

Intense and persistent separation anxiety in a 4-yr-old child was eliminated using differential reinforcement of other behavior and stimulus fading. After differentially reinforcing the child for non-anxious behavior by having the mother reappear, the interval between the mother's disappearance and subsequent reappearance was gradually increased. This resulted in a gradual fading of the mother from the situation. The procedure was accomplished in a total of 17 hr, during which only 10 min of anxious behavior was observed. The problem was completely eliminated and showed no signs of recurrence over the subsequent 6 months.     

Parent behavioral training to modify child noncompliance: Effects on untreated siblings

The purpose of the present study was twofold: (a) to examine changes in parent behavior toward an untreated sibling after parent behavioral training to modify a target child's noncompliance and (b) to examine changes in the untreated sibling's behavior. Eight clinic- referred children and their mothers served as the subjects. Parent training consisted of the use of a standardized clinic program to modify child noncompliance. The outcome measure was home observations of the parent and untreated child's interactions. The results indicated significant changes in both the parent's behavior and the untreated sibling's noncompliance.     

Treatment of an autistic child's fear of riding a school bus through exposure and reinforcement

A program to treat an austistic child's fear of riding a school bus is described. Treatment consisted of reinforcing the child for spending short periods of time on the bus while it was parked adjacent to the school, and subsequently, for riding the entire route from home to school. During early stages of the program the child's mother was present to provide reinforcement. After a total of nine treatment days the child was capable of independently riding on the bus, to and from school. From completion of the program through a one year follow-up, independent bus-riding in the absence of fear was maintained.     

Chewing and spitting out food as a compensatory behavior in patients with eating disorders

ObjectiveRecent studies suggest that chewing and spitting out food may be associated with severe eating-related pathology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between chewing and spitting, and other symptoms of eating disorders. We hypothesized that patients who chew and spit as a compensatory behavior have more severe eating-related pathology than patients who have never engaged in chewing and spitting behavior.MethodWe divided 359 patients with eating disorders into two groups according to whether they engaged in chewing and spitting as a compensatory behavior to lose weight or not. After comparing eating-related pathology between the two groups, we examined factors associated with pathologic eating behaviors using logistic regression analysis.ResultsAmong our 359 participants, 24.5% reported having engaged in chewing and spitting as a compensatory behavior. The chewing and spitting (CHSP+) group showed more severe eating disorder symptoms and suicidal behaviors. This group also had significantly higher scores on subscales that measured drive for thinness, bulimia, and impulse regulation on the EDI-2, Food Craving Questionnaire, Body Shape Questionnaire, Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, and Maudsley Obsessive Compulsive Inventory.DiscussionChewing and spitting is a common compensatory behavior among patients with eating disorders and is associated with more-pathologic eating behaviors and higher scores on psychometric tests.     

Modifying food spillage behavior in an institutionalized retarded client

The high rate of food spillage behavior in a severely retarded, choreoathetoid, female client was studied. The rate of food spillage was dramatically reduced with the implementation of successively faded reinforcement schedules combined with brief time-outs. The effects were maintained during a three-month follow-up period with a maintenance program implemented by cottage direct-care staff. The clinical significance of the behavior change was demonstrated by: 1. significant changes in ratings of photographs of the client after the meal of baseline and treatment sessions, and 2. the subject's rate of food spillage after treatment approximated two criterion groups' mean rate of spillage. The cottage staff implementing the program indicated their satisfaction with the behavior change and the ease and feasibility of implementing the maintenance contingency. Future applied research directions in institutional settings are offered.     

Gabaergic modulation of the stress response in frontal cortex and amygdala

GABAergic neurotransmission is thought to play an important role in the modulation of the central response to stress. In the present study we evaluate the influence of a brief restraint exposure on GABA-stimulated chloride influx in diverse brain areas presumed to have a major role in the mediation of emotional behaviors following aversive stimulation. A reduced chloride uptake after stress exposure was only observed in frontal cortex and amygdala. Moreover, rats subjected to such stressor performed an anxiogenic behavior when exposed later to the elevated plus-maze. A comparable behavior in the elevated plus-maze was observed between animals that were allowed to chew during the restraint experience and those without any stressful manipulation, suggesting that chewing served as an efficient coping behavioral strategy during such threatening situations. In order to explore if chewing during the restraint experience could suppress the reduction in GABA-stimulated chloride uptake induced by this stressor, rats were allowed or not to chew during restraint and in both cases GABA-stimulated chloride influx was assayed in frontal cortex and amygdala. The finding of this experiment showed that restrained rats that have the possibility to chew exhibited a similar GABA-stimulated chloride uptake in cortical tissue to that shown by control, unstressed rats. Moreover, chewing in response to restraint attenuated the reduction of GABA-stimulated chloride uptake in amygdala, supporting the notion that chewing is an effective coping response to restraint. These experiments suggest that a reduced GABAergic inhibitory control in these areas could be implicated in the emotional sequelae generated by this uncontrollable stressor and that the suppression of this reduction seems to be associated with the occurrence of coping behavioral response to such fear-inducing stimulus.     

Cognitions: Help or hindrance?

A major advance in the last decade has been interest in the psychological environment that people generate by their own responses. These responses may be parts of larger social acts and may serve as reinforcing and discriminative stimuli. Problems arise when professionals make abstractions out of manipulate human acts to cover gaps in theory; and then make these abstractions their clinical target rather than the individual's behavior in response to specific situations.     

The effects of reduced time limits on prolonged eating behavior

The present research investigated the effects of gradually reduced temporal limits on a child's prolonged eating behavior. A changing-criterion single-case design in both the home and other settings was used to assess the effects of the sequential series of reductions in the time limits allowed for reinforced meal completion. The instituted time limits produced reductions in the amount of time the child used to finish meals.     

The Effects of Both Chewing Rate and Chewing Duration on Temporal Flavor Perception

Introduction

Previous research showed that the number of chews has been shown to influence flavor perception in crispy potato chips. This study aimed to further determine how the number of chews modulates the temporal dynamics of flavor perception (i.e., flavor development) in potato chips.

Methods

The number of chews was manipulated not only by changing chewing rate (40, 80, and 120 chews/min) for a fixed swallowing time (at 25 s after the onset of the first bite; experiment 1), but also by changing the time to swallow (10, 20, and 30 s after the onset of the first bite) for a constant chewing rate (80 chews/min; experiment 2).

Results

In experiment 1, the time-intensity (TI) analysis showed that the maximum flavor intensity (Imax) and the area under the curve (AUC) were significantly higher for the medium (80 chews/min) and fast (120 chews/min) chewing rates than for the slow (40 chews/min) chewing rate in both plain and spicy flavored chips. In experiment 2, the temporal flavor perception was altered by the interaction between the chewing duration before swallowing and the flavor type of the potato chips. More specifically, in the natural chewing rate, while the Imax and AUC of spicy flavored chips were the greatest when the bolus was swallowed after the natural chewing-duration (for 20 s), the AUC of plain flavored chips was significantly greater in the longer chewing-duration (for 30 s) than the natural chewing-duration.

Conclusions

This study supports and extends the notion that the number of chews, and corresponding parameters such as chewing rate and duration, affect temporal flavor perception in the plain and spicy flavored potato chips.

Implications

Our findings show that flavor intensity of plain and spicy potato chips can be reduced when people chew the chips slowly and/or swallow quickly.

     

Self control through the use of a token economy

The effects of a token economy, developed and administered by an individual for his own problem behaviors, were examined through a reversal (ABAB) design. The target behaviors, relating to the subject's academic pursuits, part-time job and personal and domestic habits, were self-evaluated as being desirable. During the initial baseline period the frequency with which the subject engaged in “reinforcing” activities as well as the subject's emittance of the “target” behaviors was self-monitored. On the basis of the baseline data, point values for behavioral achievement (earnings) and for reinforcer usage (expenditures) were established and used rather than concrete tokens to set up the economy. During the initial token application period, a shaping procedure was used for developing many of the target responses. The results indicated that the token procedure effected extensive behavioral change and suggested that individuals wishing to undergo change need not be bound to a “therapist” but can be taught how to control and change their own behavior.     

Reduction of stereotypic body contortions using physical restraint and dro

A 9-yr-old mentally retarded female displaying high rate stereotypic body contortions of longstanding duration was treated using physical restraint and differential reinforcement of other behavior in her classroom setting. Following the collection of 2 school days of baseline data, the therapist began intensive treatment of the child in the classroom using these techniques. After 2 days of intervention, the child's teacher employed all subsequent treatment procedures for 8 school days in which eight non-treatment periods occurred. Results indicated that the treatment package was succesful in producing immediate and substantial reductions in this moderately self-injurious stereotypy at school. Eventually, rate of responding reached a zero level. Although some generalization of treatment effects to the no-treatment periods in school was noted, no systematic, enduring changes in rate of responding at home were observed. The results suggested the treatment package was easily learned and effectively employed by a teacher with no previous experience with behavior modification.     

Évaluation d’un programme francophone de formation aux habiletés parentales dans le cadre des troubles du spectre de l’autisme auprès d’un groupe pilote

Objectives

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are not only affecting the development of the child diagnosed with this disorder, but also their entire family. Parents of children with ASD face many challenges that affect their well-being and family's quality of life. These parents need support to understand their child's diagnosis, to face maladaptive behaviors and to promote skill acquisition. Parent training programs (PT) are known to increase parents’ knowledge and skills in these areas. The potential benefits for the families are reduced stress for parents, improvements in the child's development and better parent–child interactions. Unfortunately, a few structured PTs are available to French-speaking families with an ASD child. In order to provide them with this type of intervention, we developed a French parent training named “L’A.B.C. du comportement de l’enfant ayant un TED/TSA: Des parents en action!” and based on applied behavior analysis. The application and evaluation of this new intervention technique follow the recommendations for research studies on psychosocial interventions for individuals with ASD. Therefore, an initial efficacy study has been conducted to establish the promise of this PT. This paper presents the results of the first group of parents.

A case of functional dysphagia treated on the model of fear of fear

A case of neurotic dysphagia is described in which the client's inability to swallow was both a component of anxiety, and a stimulus evoking further anxiety on account of the negative social consequences of being unable to consume food or drink in public. The problem was analyzed according to Evans' conditioning model of such “fear of fear” phenomena, and the successful treatment strategies that evolved from this behavioral analysis are outlined.     

Treatment of food refusal in a two-year-old child

This article presents a case study of the successful modification of solid food eating in a two-year old child. The treatment paradigm rested on the pairing of a high incidence behavior (liquid ingestion) with a low incidence behavior (solid food ingestion). The mother of the child was also seen during the treatment period for directive instruction in behavior modification and for supportive counseling. The entire treatment period spanned 13 weeks, and was managed in a psychiatric inpatient milieu. Follow-up weights at one, two and three months, and at two years are reported.     

Control of symptoms of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome by self-monitoring

An 11-yr-old male, diagnosed as having Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome, was treated by self-monitoring therapy. A five-step procedure of successively refined control was employed. Symptom emissions were decreased both in the therapeutic setting and in the natural environment. Control was demonstrated through employment of a multiple-baseline design. Follow-up sessions conducted 1·5 months and 12 months after the termination of therapy indicated that the symptom behavior rate remained lowered in the therapeutic setting. Reports from the subject's parents and teachers indicated that the symptom behavior rate had decreased to zero in the natural environment.     

Multiple component behavioral treatment for a child with behavior problems

A case is presented which illustrates how contingencies implemented in the home environment can arrest a child's problematic behavior manifested concurrently at home and at school. In addition to contingency contracting, the mother was instructed in techniques designed to strengthen the child's use of self-regulatory verbal mediators to guide his behavior. Results indicated a rapid and substantial decline in objectionable behaviors within 6 weeks of the program's implementation. Follow-up assessments at 5 weeks and 1 yr post-treatment established that this behavior change was still being effectively maintained.     

The role of social reinforcement in maintaining an obsessive-compulsive neurosis

A patient with obsessive fears of being bitten by cats or dogs was treated with thought-stopping. While relatively successful, the treatment did not completely eliminate the obsession. After an analysis of the reinforcement contingencies for the patient's behavior, a contract limiting the patient's husband's delivery of social reinforcers was instituted. This contract successfully eliminated the obsession.     

Effects of central lesions on disorders produced by multiple dorsal rhizotomy in rats

After multiple, bilateral, cervicothoracic dorsal rhizotomy from C5-T2, rats begin to chew certain areas of the denervated forelimbs. This abnormal chewing behavior is seen in both limbs within 1 mo after deafferentation. It persists for as long as the animals survive. Unilateral sciatic nerve section also leads to chewing of a part of the denervated region, but it does not occur in all cases, the area affected is small and the abnormal behavior eventually stops. The simplest explanation for this phenomenon is that the abnormal chewing behavior derives from the limbs being rendered anesthetic and analgesic. Alternatively, central changes produced by deafferentation may underlie the abnormal behavior. To answer this question, rats underwent simultaneous multiple bilateral rhizotomy and one of several unilateral spinal cord lesions. A unilateral spinal cord hemisection or lesion of the lateral funiculus at C4 prevents chewing of the limb ipsilateral to the lesion. A unilateral section of the dorsal quadrant, the dorsal part of the lateral funiculus, or the tract of Lissauer produces a delay in the appearance of chewing of the ipsilateral limb. The chewing of the contralateral limb is unaffected by these lesions. These results demonstrate that anesthesia and analgesia of the limbs is not the only explanation for the abnormal behavior and suggests that section of the middle and ventral parts of the lateral funiculus is critical for its prevention. It is hypothesized that the chewing behavior is a manifestation of changes in the central nervous system produced by deafferentation which lead to some form of dysesthesia being experienced in the denervated region.     

Training institutional staff to alter delinquents' conversation

The staff of an institution for delinquent girls were trained to use prompts and certain social contingencies to alter girls' conversation about prosocial and antisocial behavior. The major findings were: (a) staff training led to an increase in the rate of girls' prosocial comments when staff were present, and some decrease in the rate of antisocial comments; (b) changes in staff behavior led to unpredictable changes in girls' responses to peers' prosocial and antisocial comments; (c) changes in prosocial comments were not maintained during a post-training condition, and did not generalize to periods when staff were usually absent. This pattern of outcome suggests that other intervention procedures should be used to alter such behaviors.     

Cerebral hemodynamic responses to betel chewing: a Doppler study

We sought to evaluate cerebral hemodynamic responses to betel chewing. Thirty healthy male volunteers (mean age = 35 years), ten new chewers, ten occasional chewers, and ten chronic chewers were included in this study. We used carotid duplex sonography and transcranial Doppler to measure the flow velocities and flow volume (FV) of the common carotid (CCA), internal carotid (ICA), external carotid (ECA) arteries, and the flow velocity of middle cerebral artery (MCA). Blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) were recorded simultaneously. All subjects were asked to chew fruit-flavored chewing gum for 10 minutes. Blood flows of the above vessels were measured four times at baseline and at the 2nd, 6th, and 12th minute after chewing. A repeated study was followed in the same subject but substituted with betel nut. Chronic chewers had delayed onset time and shortened vanishing time of facial-flushing sensation. Systolic and diastolic BPs were mildly elevated during gum chewing (p = 0.008 and 0.015, respectively), whereas diastolic BP was dropped during betel chewing (p = 0.008). Heart rate increased prominently during betel chewing (p < 0.0001), especially in new and occasional chewers. The peak systolic, end diastolic velocities, and FV in ECA and CCA increased significantly during betel chewing (p < 0.0001). The blood flows in the ICA and MCA had no significant changes during gum or betel chewing. Betel chewing has a central sympathetic effect resulting in accelerated HR, increased blood flows in ECA and CCA, but has a peripheral cholinergic effect resulting in a drop of diastolic BP. Intracranial cerebral hemodynamics is not affected during betel chewing. The inotropic and chronotropic effect to the heart from betel chewing is probably an unfavorable risk for patients with ischemic heart disease.