Facilitators and Barriers of Independent Decisions by Midwives During Labor and Birth

Introduction: The purpose of this study was to explore the factors that affect labor management decisions of midwives in hospitals and freestanding birth centers. Methods: A qualitative study was conducted using one‐on‐one tape recorded interviews of midwives who had experience managing labor and birth in both hospitals and freestanding birth centers. Ten interviews consisting of several open‐ended questions were conducted, coded, and analyzed in a stepwise fashion to identify codes, categories, and themes. Seven participants reviewed the final framework and confirmed credibility and trustworthiness. Results: Four overall themes were identified: trust birth, the woman, the environment, and the labor team. Discussion: When making labor management decisions, midwives are affected by their trust in birth, the woman, the health care team, and the birth environment. Midwives report more resistance when making labor management decisions in hospitals. The findings of this study provide insight into both the decision making of midwives and how factors in different environments, in this case hospitals and freestanding birth centers, influence the ability of midwives to make independent labor management decisions.     

A Review of Evidence‐Based Practices for Management of the Second Stage of Labor

Management of the second stage of labor often follows tradition‐based routines rather than evidence‐based practices. This review of second‐stage labor care practices discusses risk factors for perineal trauma and prolonged second stage and scrutinizes a variety of care practices including positions, styles of pushing, use of epidural analgesia, and perineal support techniques. Current evidence for management of the second stage of labor supports the practices of delayed pushing, spontaneous (nondirected) pushing, and maternal choice of positions. Perineal compresses, perineal massage with a lubricant, and controlling the rate of fetal extension during crowning may prevent severe perineal trauma at birth. Supine positioning is not recommended. Upright positions and directed pushing can shorten the time from onset of second stage to birth and may be indicated in certain situations, although directed pushing has some associated risks. If the fetus is in the occiput posterior position, immediate pushing is not recommended, and manual rotation can be effective in correcting the malposition. Women should be informed of the potential effects of epidural analgesia on labor progress. Consultation and intervention to expedite birth may be indicated when birth is not imminent after 2 hours of active pushing, or 4 hours complete dilatation, for nulliparous women; or one hour of pushing, or 2 hours complete dilatation, for multiparous women. Each woman should be individually assessed and apprised of the potential risks to her and her fetus of a prolonged second stage of labor, and some women may choose to continue pushing beyond these time limits.     

A description of the management and outcomes of vaginal birth after cesarean birth in the homebirth setting

Our objective was to describe the outcomes of intended home birth among 57 women with a previous cesarean birth. Data were drawn from a larger prospective study of intended homebirth in nurse-midwifery practice. Available data included demographics, perinatal risk information, and outcomes of prenatal, intrapartum, postpartum, and neonatal care. The hospital course was reviewed for those transferred to the hospital setting. Fifty-three of 57 women (93%) had a spontaneous vaginal birth, 1 had a vacuum-assisted birth, and 3 (5.3%) had a repeat cesarean birth. Thirty-one of 32 (97%) women who had a previous vaginal birth after cesarean birth (VBAC) had a successful VBAC; 22 of 25 (88%) women without a history of VBAC successfully delivered vaginally. Fifty (87.7%) of these women delivered in the home setting, whereas 7 (12.3%) delivered in the hospital setting. None of the women experienced uterine rupture or dehiscence. One infant was stillborn. This event was attributed to a postdates pregnancy with meconium. Certified nurse-midwives with homebirth practices must be knowledgeable about the risks for mother and baby, screen clientele appropriately, and be able to counsel patients with regard to potential adverse outcomes. Given what is presently known, VBAC is not recommended in the homebirth setting. It is imperative in the light of current evidence and practice climate to advocate for the availability of certified nurse-midwife services and woman-centered care in the hospital setting.     

第二产程时间对产后盆底肌力的影响

目的:探讨第二产程时间对顺产妇的产后盆底肌力的影响。方法:回顾性分析2014年3月至2015年3月360例经阴道分娩初产妇的临床资料。按第二产程时间分为3组,即:A组(1小时)、B组(1~2小时)和C组(2小时),比较各组之间产妇盆底肌力的差异。结果:3组产妇产后盆底Ⅰ类肌纤维肌力值全部异常;Ⅱ类肌纤维肌力异常率分别为86.0%、90.3%和77.8%,肌力异常率比较差异均无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:第二产程时间的长短并不影响顺产初产妇的产后盆底肌力。     

How Caregivers Manage Pain and Distress in Second‐Stage Labor

Innovative care interactions are needed when helping a woman who exhibits severe pain or distress during the second stage of labor. We describe how caregivers and laboring women interacted during second‐stage labor, with particular attention to how caregivers managed pain and distress. We used observational methods to perform a microanalysis of behaviors from video‐recorded data. Pain occurred during labor contractions, and distress (an emotional response to pain) manifested primarily between contractions. Four patterns of women's behavior were identified: 1) no pain or distress, 2) low‐level pain and/or distress, 3) focused working, and 4) severe pain and/or distress. Successful care was identified as enabling the woman to maintain herself in any state other than severe pain and/or distress. Particular modes of speech used by the caregiver enabled the attainment of successful care when the woman was not in severe pain or distress. When severe pain or distress existed, innovative caregiving transitioned the woman to another state. Successful intervention strategies included 1) giving innovative directions and 2) “talking down.” Ordinary modes of “birth talk” can be used when severe pain or distress is not manifested and when the primary care problem is to assist women with bearing down. Innovative care interactions are needed when faced with severe pain or distress. Managing labor pain is an ongoing focus of clinicians who provide care to women in labor. In addition to pain, women might also experience distress, an emotional response to the labor experience. Whether from choice or necessity, caregivers for laboring women need nonpharmacologic interventions and interpersonal skills that can help women endure labor and give birth. Labor is hard work, and even in precipitous labors most women require assistance. Care given to a laboring woman consists of employing comforting strategies that help her cope with the pain of uterine contractions. The purpose of these comfort strategies is to help the woman find needed resilience during labor. Most cultures have mechanisms for providing this kind of support. In this article, we identify patterns of behavior used by laboring women and describe successful and unsuccessful strategies used by caregivers to help these women deal with pain and distress during the second stage of labor.     

Prolonged Second Stage of Labor and Risk of Adverse Maternal and Perinatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT: Background: Safe and effective management of the second stage of labor presents a clinical challenge for laboring women and practitioners of obstetric care. This systematic review was conducted to evaluate evidence for the influence of prolonged second stage of labor on the risk of selected adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. Methods: Articles were searched using PubMed, Cochrane Library, and CINAHL from 1980 until 2005. Studies were included according to 3 criteria: if they reported duration of the second stage of labor, if they reported maternal and/or neonatal outcomes in relation to prolonged second stage, and if they reported original research. Results: Our systematic review found evidence of a strong association between prolonged second stage and operative delivery. Although significant associations with maternal outcomes such as postpartum hemorrhage, infection, and severe obstetric lacerations were reported, inherent limitations in methodology were evident in the studies. Recurrent limitations included oversimplified categorization of second stage, inconsistency in study population characteristics, and lack of control of confounding factors. No associations between prolonged second stage and adverse neonatal outcomes were reported. Conclusions: The primary findings of our review indicated that most of the studies are flawed and do not answer the important questions for maternity caregivers to safely manage prolonged second stage. Meanwhile, approaches for promoting a normal second stage of labor are available to caregivers, such as maternal positioning and pain relief measures and also promoting effective pushing technique. (BIRTH 33:4 December 2006)     

How Do Physicians and Midwives Manage the Third Stage of Labor?

ABSTRACT: Background: Current practice guidelines recommend active management of the third stage of labor. We compared practices of three maternity care provider disciplines in management of third‐stage labor and the justifications for their approach. Methods: This study is a cross‐sectional survey of maternity practitioners in usual practice settings in British Columbia. All 199 obstetricians, all 82 midwives, and a random sample of family physicians practicing intrapartum maternity care (one‐third, or 346) were surveyed The three main outcome measures by discipline were the method preferred in managing third‐stage labor, the reasons given for the chosen method, and views on the appropriateness of the current third‐stage labor guideline. Results: The overall response rate was 57.8 percent. Response rates indicating that the participants were “aware of guideline” were the following: obstetricians, 85.3 percent; family physicians, 53.7 percent; and midwives, 97.8 percent. Response rates indicating that the participants “agreed with guideline” were the following: obstetricians, 95.2 percent; family physicians, 97.6 percent; and midwives, 51.2 percent. Response rates indicating that “oxytocin should be given with anterior shoulder” were the following: obstetricians, 71.1 percent; family physicians, 68.3 percent; and midwives, 26.7 percent. Response rates indicating that “routine active management of third stage of labor should be the norm” were the following: obstetricians, 79.2 percent; family physicians, 60.2 percent; and midwives, 17 percent. All results were statistically significant (p < 0.01). Conclusions: A major difference was found between physicians and midwives in the management of third‐stage labor. Physicians routinely implemented active management of the third stage of labor; midwives preferred expectant approaches, principally based on women’s preference. Provincial data did not show differences in postpartum hemorrhage or transfusion rates by practitioner type. (BIRTH 35:3 September 2008)     

National Partnership for Maternal Safety: Consensus Bundle on Safe Reduction of Primary Cesarean Births— Supporting Intended Vaginal Births

Cesarean births and associated morbidity and mortality have reached near epidemic proportions. The National Partnership for Maternal Safety under the guidance of the Council on Patient Safety in Women's Health Care responded by developing a patient safety bundle to reduce the number of primary cesarean births. Safety bundles outline critical practices to implement in every maternity unit. This National Partnership for Maternity Safety bundle, as with other bundles, is organized into four domains: Readiness, Recognition and Prevention, Response, and Reporting and Systems Learning. Bundle components may be adapted to individual facilities, but standardization within an institution is advised. Evidence‐based resources and recommendations are provided to assist implementation.     

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Postpartum Care Practices of Nurse‐Midwives

Introduction : Postpartum screening for glucose intolerance among women with recent histories of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is important for identifying women with continued glucose intolerance after birth, yet screening rates are suboptimal. In a thorough review of the literature, we found no studies of screening practices among certified nurse‐midwives (CNMs). The objectives of our study were to estimate the prevalence of postpartum screening for abnormal glucose tolerance and related care by CNMs for women with recent histories of GDM and to identify strategies for improvement. Methods : From October through December 2010, the Ohio Department of Health sent a survey by mail and Internet to all licensed CNMs practicing in Ohio. We calculated prevalence estimates for knowledge, attitudes, clinical practices, and behaviors related to postpartum diabetes screening. Chi‐square statistics were used to assess differences in self‐reported clinical behaviors by frequency of postpartum screening. Results : Of the 146 CNMs who provided postpartum care and responded to the survey (62.2% response rate), 50.4% reported screening women with GDM‐affected pregnancies for abnormal glucose tolerance at the postpartum visit. Of CNMs who screened postpartum, only 48.4% used fasting blood sugar or the 2‐hour oral glucose tolerance test. Although 86.2% of all responding CNMs reported that they inform women with recent histories of GDM of their increased risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus, only 63.1% counseled these women to exercise regularly and 23.3% reported referring overweight/obese women to a diet support group or other nutrition counseling. CNMs reported that identification of community resources for lifestyle interventions and additional training in postpartum screening guidelines may help to improve postpartum care. Discussion : CNMs in Ohio reported suboptimal levels of postpartum diabetes testing and use of a recommended postpartum test. Providing CNMs with additional training and identifying community resources to support needed lifestyle behavior change may improve care for women with recent GDM‐affected pregnancies.     

Perineal Outcomes and Maternal Comfort Related to the Application of Perineal Warm Packs in the Second Stage of Labor: A Randomized Controlled Trial

ABSTRACT: Background: Perineal warm packs are widely used during childbirth in the belief that they reduce perineal trauma and increase comfort during late second stage of labor. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of applying warm packs to the perineum on perineal trauma and maternal comfort during the late second stage of labor. Methods: A randomized controlled trial was undertaken. In the late second stage of labor, nulliparous women (n = 717) giving birth were randomly allocated to have warm packs (n = 360) applied to their perineum or to receive standard care (n = 357). Standard care was defined as any second‐stage practice carried out by midwives that did not include the application of warm packs to the perineum. Analysis was on an intention‐to‐treat basis, and the primary outcome measures were requirement for perineal suturing and maternal comfort. Results: The difference in the number of women who required suturing after birth was not significant. Women in the warm pack group had significantly fewer third‐ and fourth‐degree tears and they had significantly lower perineal pain scores when giving birth and on “day 1” and “day 2” after the birth compared with the standard care group. At 3 months, they were significantly less likely to have urinary incontinence compared with women in the standard care group. Conclusions: The application of perineal warm packs in late second stage does not reduce the likelihood of nulliparous women requiring perineal suturing but significantly reduces third‐ and fourth‐degree lacerations, pain during the birth and on days 1 and 2, and urinary incontinence. This simple, inexpensive practice should be incorporated into second stage labor care. (BIRTH 34:4 December 2007)     

Use of Hyaluronidase to Prevent Perineal Trauma During Spontaneous Births: A Randomized,Placebo‐Controlled,Double‐blind,Clinical Trial

Introduction: The purpose of this study was to compare the frequency and severity of perineal trauma during spontaneous birth with or without perineal injections of hyaluronidase (HAase). Methods: A randomized, placebo‐controlled, double‐blind clinical trial was conducted in a midwife‐led, in‐hospital birth center in São Paulo, Brazil. Primiparous women (N = 160) were randomly assigned to an experimental (n = 80) or control (n = 80) group. During the second stage of labor, women in the experimental group received an injection of 20.000 turbidity‐reducing units of HAase in the posterior region of the perineum, and those in the control group received a placebo injection. The assessment of perineal outcome was performed by 2 independent nurse‐midwives. A 1‐tailed Fisher exact test was performed, and a P value < .025 was considered statistically significant. Results: Perineal integrity occurred in 34.2% of the experimental group and in 32.5% of the control group, which was not a statistically significant difference (P= .477). First‐degree laceration was the most common trauma in the posterior region of the perineum in women in both groups (experimental = 56%, control = 42.6%). Severe perineal trauma occurred in 28.9% of the experimental group and 38.8% of the control group, which also was not a statistically significant difference (P= .131). The depth of second‐degree perineal lacerations in the experimental and control groups, measured by the Peri‐Rule, was 1.9 cm and 2.3 cm, respectively. An episiotomy was performed in 11 women (experimental group = 3, control group = 8), and 4 (all in control group) had third‐degree lacerations. Discussion: The use of injectable HAase did not increase the proportion of intact perineum and did not reduce the proportion of severe perineal trauma in our sample.