The management of depression in older nursing home residents

OBJECTIVES: Depression remains underrecognized and undertreated in older people. We estimated the prevalence of depression in older nursing home (NH) residents and described its pharmacological management. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Residents in 1,492 NHs in five states (Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, New York, South Dakota). PARTICIPANTS: Forty-two thousand nine hundred one residents aged 65 and older with depression documented as an active clinical condition on the Minimum Data Set (MDS) assessment. MEASUREMENTS: Data were from the Systematic Assessment of Geriatric drug use via Epidemiology database. We grouped antidepressant medications by class: tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclics, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and others. Logistic regression models revealed predictors of receipt of any antidepressant and, among those treated, predictors of receipt of an SSRI. RESULTS: Eleven percent of the residents were identified as depressed on the MDS. Of these, 55% received antidepressant therapy. Of depressed residents receiving antidepressant therapy, 32% received doses less than the manufacturers' recommended minimum effective dose for treating depression, with residents on TCAs more likely to receive less than the recommended dose for treating depression. The oldest-old (> or = 85 years) (odds ratio (OR) = 0.93, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.88-0.98), black residents (OR = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.75-0.92), and those with severe cognitive impairment (OR = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.64-0.75) were the least likely to receive an antidepressant. In those treated, cardiovascular diseases were associated with an increased likelihood of SSRI use. Despite control for comorbid conditions, women were less likely than men to receive an SSRI (OR = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.72-0.82). CONCLUSIONS: Although depression is a treatable illness, the majority of NH residents may be inadequately treated.     

Effects of noncardiovascular comorbidities on antihypertensive use in elderly hypertensives

Although the benefits of antihypertensive drugs have been clearly established, they remain underused by vulnerable older populations. We examined whether the presence of noncardiovascular comorbidity deters use of antihypertensives in elderly with hypertension. We conducted a retrospective cohort study among 51,517 patients > or =65 years of age in the Pennsylvania Pharmaceutical Assistance Contract for the Elderly (PACE) Program during 1999 and 2000. All were hypertensive and had diagnoses and used treatments during 1999 to qualify for entry into 1 of the following 5 mutually exclusive cohorts: asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), depression, gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, osteoarthritis, or none of the 4 comorbidities. Proportions using antihypertensives in 2000 were assessed. Logistic regression analysis was used to identify the independent effects on antihypertensive use of the 4 comorbidities of interest, sociodemographic characteristics, other cardiovascular and noncardiovascular comorbidity, and health care utilization variables. After adjustments in multivariable analyses, antihypertensive use was consistently lower in patients with asthma/COPD (odds ratio [OR], 0.43; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.40 to 0.47), depression (OR, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.45 to 0.55), GI disorders (OR, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.54 to 0.64), and osteoarthritis (OR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.59 to 0.67) relative to those without these conditions. Reduced antihypertensive use was also associated with older age, female gender, white race, more severe other comorbidities, absence of some cardiovascular indications, hospitalizations, nursing home care, physician visits, and use of fewer other medications. Highly prevalent, noncardiovascular conditions appear to deter use of antihypertensives in elderly with hypertension.     

Epidemiology of Resistant Hypertension in Canada

BackgroundResistant hypertension is associated with cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of apparent treatment-resistant hypertension in Canadian adults and examine the characteristics of those affected.MethodsA nationally representative cross-sectional study was conducted with the use of Canadian Health Measures Survey (2007-2017) data. The frequency of respondents with uncontrolled blood pressure despite 3 or more antihypertensive medications of different drug classes (and at least 1 agent being a diuretic), or treatment with 4 or more agents regardless of blood pressure, was determined.ResultsA total of 245,700 people were identified to have apparent treatment-resistant hypertension, representing 5.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] 4.5%–6.2%) of adults treated for hypertension in Canada. Respondents who had uncontrolled blood pressure with 3 or more antihypertensive drugs were more likely women (55.8%, 95% CI 41.1%-70.4%), 70 years of age or older (45.3% 95% CI 32.8%-57.9%), and overweight or obese (84.2%, 95% CI 72.3%-96.1%). Respondents with apparent treatment-resistant hypertension also had a high likelihood of chronic kidney disease (36.0%, 95% CI 21.4%-50.6%), diabetes (35.2%, 95% CI 21.7%-48.7%), dyslipidemia (68.0%, 95% CI 55.2%-80.8%), and history of heart attack (9.9%, 95% CI 4.8%-15.1%) or stroke (7.1%, 95% CI 0-14.4%).ConclusionsDespite being prescribed at least 3 antihypertensive drugs, a considerable proportion of Canadians, especially women, have difficulty achieving blood pressure control, predisposing them to a higher risk of cardiovascular complications and death.     

Blood pressure in children with chronic kidney disease: a report from the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children study

To characterize the distribution of blood pressure (BP), prevalence, and risk factors for hypertension in pediatric chronic kidney disease, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis of baseline BPs in 432 children (mean age 11 years; 60% male; mean glomerular filtration rate 44 mL/min per 1.73 m(2)) enrolled in the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children cohort study. BPs were obtained using an aneroid sphygmomanometer. Glomerular filtration rate was measured by iohexol disappearance. Elevated BP was defined as BP >or=90th percentile for age, gender, and height. Hypertension was defined as BP >or=95th percentile or as self-reported hypertension plus current treatment with antihypertensive medications. For systolic BP, 14% were hypertensive and 11% were prehypertensive (BP 90th to 95th percentile); 68% of subjects with elevated systolic BP were taking antihypertensive medications. For diastolic BP, 14% were hypertensive and 9% were prehypertensive; 53% of subjects with elevated diastolic BP were taking antihypertensive medications. Fifty-four percent of subjects had either systolic or diastolic BP >or=95th percentile or a history of hypertension plus current antihypertensive use. Characteristics associated with elevated BP included black race, shorter duration of chronic kidney disease, absence of antihypertensive medication use, and elevated serum potassium. Among subjects receiving antihypertensive treatment, uncontrolled BP was associated with male sex, shorter chronic kidney disease duration, and absence of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker use. Thirty-seven percent of children with chronic kidney disease had either elevated systolic or diastolic BP, and 39% of these were not receiving antihypertensives, indicating that hypertension in pediatric chronic kidney disease may be frequently under- or even untreated. Treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers may improve BP control in these patients.     

Obstructive sleep apnea, obesity, and the risk of incident atrial fibrillation.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to identify whether obesity and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) independently predict incident atrial fibrillation/flutter (AF). BACKGROUND: Obesity is a risk factor for AF, and OSA is highly prevalent in obesity. Obstructive sleep apnea is associated with AF, but it is unknown whether OSA predicts new-onset AF independently of obesity. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 3,542 Olmsted County adults without past or current AF who were referred for an initial diagnostic polysomnogram from 1987 to 2003. New-onset AF was assessed and confirmed by electrocardiography during a mean follow-up of 4.7 years. RESULTS: Incident AF occurred in 133 subjects (cumulative probability 14%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 9% to 19%). Univariate predictors of AF were age, male gender, hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart failure, smoking, body mass index, OSA (hazard ratio 2.18, 95% CI 1.34 to 3.54) and multiple measures of OSA severity. In subjects <65 years old, independent predictors of incident AF were age, male gender, coronary artery disease, body mass index (per 1 kg/m2, hazard ratio 1.07, 95% CI 1.05 to 1.10), and the decrease in nocturnal oxygen saturation (per 0.5 U log change, hazard ratio 3.29, 95% CI 1.35 to 8.04). Heart failure, but neither obesity nor OSA, predicted incident AF in subjects > or =65 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: Obesity and the magnitude of nocturnal oxygen desaturation, which is an important pathophysiological consequence of OSA, are independent risk factors for incident AF in individuals <65 years of age.     

Gender differences in the treatment of hypertension: a community based study in Porto.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the use of antihypertensive drugs in a random sample of adults living in Porto, Portugal, and to identify gender differences in the treatment of hypertension. DESIGN: Observational, cross-sectional. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: Nine hundred and fifty-nine participants over 39 years of age, living in Porto, were selected by random digit dialing. For each subject, socioeconomic characterization, family and personal medical history, and information on antihypertensive treatment were obtained through a questionnaire. Blood pressure was measured on a single occasion, and a fasting blood sample was collected. Gender differences in the treatment of arterial hypertension and number and type of drugs were evaluated through the calculation of female:male proportion ratios and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). RESULTS: Hypertension treatment was more frequent in women than in men (proportion ratio 1.40, 95% CI 1.15-1.72), although no differences were observed among hypertensives aware of their condition (proportion ratio 1.07, 95% CI 0.93-1.22). The female:male proportion ratios of treatment with one drug, fixed combination therapy and free combination therapy were 1.13 (95% CI 0.94-1.36), 0.83 (95% CI 0.34-2.01) and 0.76 (95% CI 0.49-1.19), respectively. In subjects treated with one drug the use of ACE inhibitors/AT-II antagonists was more frequent in men (proportion ratio 0.68, 95% IC 0.46-1.01) and treatment with diuretics higher in women (proportion ratio 1.83, 95% CI 1.04-3.23). In participants treated with combination therapy, ACE inhibitors/AT-II antagonists and diuretics were more frequently used by women and calcium channel blockers and beta-blockers by men (female:male proportion ratios were 1.27, 95% CI 0.96-1.68, 1.24, 95% CI 0.94-1.64, 0.61, 95% CI 0.37-1.02 and 0.74, 95% CI 0.31-1.79, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Arterial hypertension tended to be more frequently treated among women and different therapeutic options were found according to gender. Gender differences in the awareness of hypertension, sexual specificity of the activity of antihypertensive drugs, and comorbidity may play a role in gender inequalities in the treatment of hypertension in Portugal.     

High prevalence of unrecognized sleep apnoea in drug-resistant hypertension.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) in adult patients with drug-resistant hypertension, a common problem in a tertiary care facility. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: University hypertension clinic. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Adults with drug-resistant hypertension, defined as a clinic blood pressure of > or = 140/90 mmHg, while taking a sensible combination of three or more antihypertensive drugs, titrated to maximally recommended doses. Each of the 41 participants completed an overnight polysomnographic study and all but two had a 24 h ambulatory blood pressure measurement. RESULTS: Prevalence of OSA, defined as an apnoea-hypopnoea index of > or = 10 obstructive events per hour of sleep, was 83% in the 24 men and 17 women studied. Patients were generally late middle-aged (57.2 +/- 1.6 years, mean +/- SE), predominantly white (85%), obese (body mass index, 34.0 +/- 0.9 kg/m2) and taking a mean of 3.6 +/- 0.1 different antihypertensive medications daily. OSA was more prevalent in men than in women (96 versus 65%, P = 0.014) and more severe (mean apnoea-hypopnoea index of 32.2 +/- 4.5 versus 14.0 +/- 3.1 events/h, P = 0.004). There was no gender difference in body mass index or age. Women with OSA were significantly older and had a higher systolic blood pressure, lower diastolic blood pressure, wider pulse pressure and slower heart rate than women without OSA. CONCLUSIONS: The extraordinarily high prevalence of OSA in these patients supports its potential role in the pathogenesis of drug-resistant hypertension, and justifies the undertaking of a randomized controlled trial to corroborate this hypothesis.     

Absence of association between depression and hypertension: results of a prospectively designed population-based study

The objective of this study was to examine the relation between hypertension and depression. In a cross-sectional study of the urban region of a State capital with more than 1.5 million inhabitants, 1174 men and women aged 18-80 years, selected at random from the population, were studied. Blood pressure, hypertension (blood pressure readings >or=140/90 mm Hg or use of blood pressure-lowering agents), risk factors for hypertension and depression according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition) were investigated in home interviews. The prevalence of major depression and hypertension were 12.4% (95% confidence interval (CI): 10.5-14.3) and 34.7% (95% CI: 32.2-37.4), respectively. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures of individuals with and without a lifetime episode of depression were not different after adjustment for age and gender. Lifetime episodic major depression was not associated with hypertension in bivariate analysis (risk ratios (RR): 0.96, 95% CI: 0.76-1.23) and after adjustment for confounding (RR: 1.15; 95% CI:0.75-1.76). Hypertension and depression were not associated in this free-living population of adults, suggesting that their concomitant occurrence in clinical practice may be ascribed to chance.     

Lifestyle Modification Advice for Lowering or Controlling High Blood Pressure: Who's Getting It?

Lifestyle modifications (LSMs) are important in hypertension management. Using data from a population-based sample of hypertensive adults (N=28,457), the authors examined variations in reports of receipt of LSM advice by patient characteristics. Most adults (90.3%) with known hypertension reported receiving some type of advice. Exercise advice was reported most frequently (74.6%), followed by advice to reduce salt intake (69.3%), change eating habits (61.9%), and reduce alcohol intake (43.5%). Compared with adults aged 60 years or older, persons aged 18 to 39 years were more likely to report receipt of advice (odds ratio [OR], 1.42; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.11-1.81). Overweight persons (OR, 1.64; 95% CI, 1.40-1.93) and obese persons (OR, 2.75; 95% CI, 2.28-3.31) were more likely to report receipt of advice. Persons receiving antihypertensive medication were also more likely to report receiving advice (OR, 2.35; 95% CI, 1.98-2.81). This study demonstrates that older persons, persons not taking antihypertensive medication, and individuals who are not overweight or obese are less likely to report receiving LSM advice.     

Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring: is the daytime period enough for making clinical decisions?

AIM: To assess the agreement between the clinical information provided by the ambulatory daytime average and 24 h average blood pressure value for diagnosing hypertension and assessing the effects of antihypertensive treatment. METHODS: We analysed 261 24 h ambulatory monitoring records (SpaceLabs 90207, SpaceLabs, Redmond, Washington, USA) obtained from hypertensives over 18 years of age (mean age 55.8 years) in order to make a diagnosis of hypertension or assess its control in response to treatment. Recording was programmed to occur every 20 min during waking periods and every 30 min during sleep, daily activity also being registered. The criteria compared in the diagnosis of hypertension were: (1) the evaluation criterion: an average blood pressure for the activity period of less than 135/85 mmHg (Joint National Committee VI); (2) the gold standard: an average blood pressure over 24 h of less than 125/80 mmHg (World Health Organization-International Society of Hypertension, 1999). RESULTS: In 90% of the records, there was agreement between both criteria. In 7.2%, the awake blood pressure average was normal and the 24 h average high. Values obtained were: sensitivity, 89% (95% confidence interval 84-89%); specificity, 92% (95% CI 88-95%); positive predictive value, 95.6% (95% CI 93-98%); negative predictive value, 81% (95% CI 75-85%); pretest probability, 66% (95% CI 60-72%); positive likelihood ratio, 11; and negative likelihood ratio, 0.3. There were no significant differences in age, gender or percentage of treated subjects between the groups with and without agreement. CONCLUSIONS: Daytime and 24 h average blood pressure may indeed carry similar information for diagnosing hypertension and assessing the effects of antihypertensive treatment in clinical practice. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring used only during the daytime period could be better tolerated and agreed to by patients than 24 h monitoring.     

Control of hypertension 5 years after stroke in the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study

Control of blood pressure after stroke is important for reducing the risk of recurrent stroke. We examined the control of hypertension in a community-based population of 5-year stroke survivors. Cases of first-ever stroke from the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study were interviewed at 5 years poststroke. Blood pressure, history of hypertension, and antihypertensive medications were recorded. Individuals were classified as normotensive (blood pressure < 140/90 mm Hg, no history of hypertension, and no antihypertensive medications), controlled hypertensive (blood pressure < 140/90 mm Hg, history of hypertension, and/or taking antihypertensive medications), uncontrolled hypertensive (blood pressure > or = 140/90 mm Hg, history of hypertension, and/or taking antihypertensive medications), or uninformed hypertensive (blood pressure > or = 140/90 mm Hg, no known history of hypertension, and no antihypertensive medications). At 5 years poststroke, 441 (45%) of 978 first-ever stroke cases were alive. Of these, 305 (69%) had complete data on blood pressure, antihypertensive medication use, and history of hypertension. No statistical differences existed between those with or without these data. Eight-two percent were hypertensive; 63% had controlled hypertension, 30% had uncontrolled hypertension, and 7% were unaware that they were hypertensive. Overall, 67% of individuals classified as uncontrolled or uninformed hypertensive subjects were receiving treatment that was insufficient to achieve target blood pressure levels. Uncontrolled hypertensive subjects were more likely to recall receiving advice to manage their hypertension with medication (P < 0.02) and diet (P < 0.09). Although the majority of hypertensive individuals had controlled hypertension at 5 years poststroke, considerable improvement can be made in the control of hypertension after stroke.     

Gender disparities in blood pressure control and cardiovascular care in a national sample of ambulatory care visits

The purpose of this study was to provide an analysis of gender-based disparities in hypertension and cardiovascular disease care in ambulatory practices across the United States. Using data from the 2005 National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey and the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis of patient visits with their primary care providers and examined the association between gender and blood pressure control, use of any antihypertensive medication or initiation of new therapy for patients with uncontrolled hypertension, and receipt of recommended therapy for select cardiovascular conditions. Multivariable models were estimated to examine the association between gender and each outcome controlling for other variables. A total of 12 064 patient visits were identified (7786 women and 4278 men). Among patients with hypertension, women were less likely than men to meet blood pressure control targets (54.0% versus 58.7%; P<0.02). In multivariate analyses, women aged 65 to 80 years were less likely than men to have controlled hypertension (odds ratio: 0.62; 95% CI: 0.45 to 0.85). There was no association between gender and use of any antihypertensive medication or initiating a new therapy among patients with uncontrolled hypertension. In multivariate analyses, women were less likely than men to receive aspirin (odds ratio: 0.43; 95% CI: 0.27 to 0.67) and beta-blockers (odds ratio: 0.60; 95% CI: 0.36 to 0.99) for secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Our study highlights the persistent gender disparities in blood pressure control and cardiovascular disease management and also reveals the inadequate delivery of cardiovascular care to all patients.     

Prevalence and correlates of elevated serum creatinine levels: the Framingham Heart Study.

BACKGROUND: Elevated serum creatinine (SCr) levels are a predictor of end-stage renal disease, but little is known about the prevalence of elevated SCr levels and their correlates in the community. METHODS: In this cross-sectional, community-based sample, SCr levels were measured in 6233 adults (mean age, 54 years; 54% women) who composed the "broad sample" of this investigation. A subset, consisting of 3241 individuals who were free of known renal disease, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and diabetes, constituted the healthy reference sample. In this latter sample, sex-specific 95th percentiles for SCr levels (men, 136 micromol/L [1.5 mg/dL]; women, 120 micromol/L [1.4 mg/dL]) were labeled cutpoints. These cutpoints were applied to the broad sample in a logistic regression model to identify prevalence and correlates of elevated SCr levels. RESULTS: The prevalence of elevated SCr levels was 8.9% in men and 8.0% in women. Logistic regression in men identified age, treatment for hypertension (odds ratio [OR], 1.75; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.27-2.42), and body mass index (OR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.01-1.15) as correlates of elevated SCr levels. Additionally, men with diabetes who were receiving antihypertensive medication were more likely to have raised SCr values (OR, 2.94; 95% CI, 1.60-5.39). In women, age, use of cardiac medications (OR, 1.58; 95% CI, 1.10-2.96), and treatment for hypertension (OR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.07-1.87) were associated with elevated SCr levels. CONCLUSIONS: Elevated SCr levels are common in the community and are strongly associated with older age, treatment for hypertension, and diabetes. Longitudinal studies are warranted to determine the clinical outcomes of individuals with elevated levels of SCr and to examine factors related to the progression of renal disease in the community.