Regional versus generalized muscle pain syndromes

Soft tissue pain disorders have provided diagnostic and therapeutic challenges since the early 1700s. Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), characterized by widespread pain and tenderness, has become the clinical model of human generalized soft tissue pain syndromes. The classification criteria for FMS are now widely accepted, but they still generate some controversy. This disorder occurs in all ages, ethnic groups, and cultures, but it is most common among middleaged women, who can experience moderately severe physical dysfunction. To date, there is no cure, and no single treatment controls all of the symptoms. Multimodal therapy, including education, psychological support, physical therapy, and medication can reduce symptom severity. The cause of FMS is still unknown, but patients exhibit a low pain threshold and thus meet criteria for allodynia. Evidence from animal systems demonstrates that allodynia can result from an excess of pronociceptive neurochemicals or from a deficiency of antinociceptive neurochemical mediators. Because the levels of these neurochemicals are abnormal in FMS, its pathogenesis is believed to involve aberrant neurochemical processing of sensory signals from the body.     

Effects of Treatment of Myofascial Trigger Points on the Pain of Fibromyalgia

Myofascial pain syndromes (MPSs) from trigger points (TrPs) and fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) are common musculoskeletal pain conditions that frequently coexist in the same patients. In recent decades, it has become evident that these entities greatly influence each other’s clinical expression. FMS is mainly rooted in the central nervous system, while TrPs have a peripheral origin. However, the nociceptive impulses from TrPs may have significant impact on symptoms of FMS, probably by enhancing the level of central sensitization typical of this condition. Several attempts have been made to assess the effects of treatment of co-occurring TrPs in FMS. We report the outcomes of these studies showing that local extinction of TrPs in patients with fibromyalgia produces significant relief of FMS pain. Though further studies are needed, these findings suggest that assessment and treatment of concurrent TrPs in FMS should be systematically performed before any specific fibromyalgia therapy is undertaken.     

Reconnecting the Brain With the Rest of the Body in Musculoskeletal Pain Research

A challenge in understanding chronic musculoskeletal pain is that research is often siloed between neuroscience, physical therapy/rehabilitation, orthopedics, and rheumatology which focus respectively on 1) neurally mediated effects on pain processes, 2) behavior and muscle activity, 3) tissue structure, and 4) inflammatory processes. Although these disciplines individually study important aspects of pain, there is a need for more cross-disciplinary research that can bridge between them. Identifying the gaps in knowledge is important to understand the whole body, especially at the interfaces between the silos—between brain function and behavior, between behavior and tissue structure, between musculoskeletal and immune systems, and between peripheral tissues and the nervous system. Research on “mind and body” practices can bridge across these silos and encourage a “whole person” approach to better understand musculoskeletal pain by bringing together the brain and the rest of the body.PerspectiveResearch on chronic musculoskeletal pain is limited by significant knowledge gaps. To be fully integrated, musculoskeletal pain research will need to bridge across tissues, anatomical areas, and body systems. Research on mind and body approaches encourages a “whole person” approach to better understand musculoskeletal pain.     

Musculoskeletal injections: a review of the evidence

Injections are valuable procedures for managing musculoskeletal conditions commonly encountered by family physicians. Corticosteroid injections into articular, periarticular, or soft tissue structures relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and improve mobility. Injections can provide diagnostic information and are commonly used for postoperative pain control. Local anesthetics may be injected with corticosteroids to provide additional, rapid pain relief. Steroid injection is the preferred and definitive treatment for de Quervain tenosynovitis and trochanteric bursitis. Steroid injections can also be helpful in controlling pain during physical rehabilitation from rotator cuff syndrome and lateral epicondylitis. Intra-articular steroid injection provides pain relief in rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. There is little systematic evidence to guide medication selection for therapeutic injections. The medication used and the frequency of injection should be guided by the goal of the injection (i.e., diagnostic or therapeutic), the underlying musculoskeletal diagnosis, and clinical experience. Complications from steroid injections are rare, but physicians should understand the potential risks and counsel patients appropriately. Patients with diabetes who receive periarticular or soft tissue steroid injections should closely monitor their blood glucose for two weeks following injection.     

Similarities in stress physiology among patients with chronic pain and headache disorders: evidence for a common pathophysiological mechanism?

One common feature of chronic musculoskeletal pain and headaches are that they are both influenced by stress. Among these, tension-type headache (TTH), fibromyalgia (FMS) and chronic shoulder/neck pain (SNP) appear to have several similarities, both with regard to pathophysiology, clinical features and demographics. The main hypothesis of the present study was that patients with chronic pain (TTH, FMS and SNP) had stress-induced features distinguishing them from migraine patients and healthy controls. We measured pain, blood pressure, heart rate (HR) and skin blood flow (BF) during (1 h) and after (30 min) controlled low-grade cognitive stressor in 22 migraine patients, 18 TTH patients, 23 FMS patients, 29 SNP patients and 44 healthy controls. FMS patients had a lower early HR response to stress than migraine patients, but no differences were found among FMS, TTH and SNP patients. Finger skin BF decreased more in FMS patients compared to migraine patients, both during and after the test. When comparing chronic pain patients (chronic TTH, FMS and SNP) with those with episodic pain (episodic TTH and migraine patients) or little or no pain (healthy controls), different adaptation profiles were found during the test for systolic and diastolic blood pressure, HR and skin BF in the chronic group. In conclusion, these results suggest that TTH, FMS and SNP patients may share common pathophysiological mechanisms regarding the physiological responses to and recovery from low-grade cognitive stress, differentiating them from episodic pain conditions such as migraine.     

Lateral epicondylalgia: a musculoskeletal physiotherapy perspective

Tennis elbow or lateral epicondylalgia (LE) is a challenging musculoskeletal condition to treat. This is largely due to the lack of research-based evidence of the clinical efficacy of the myriad of treatment approaches espoused in the literature. In view of this, successful rehabilitation of LE is based on choosing treatments that address the physical impairments found during clinical examination. The primary physical impairment in LE is a deficit in grip strength predominately due to pain and its consequences on motor function. Hence the mainstay of successful management of this condition is therapeutic exercise, providing it is not pain provocative. Adjunctive procedures such as manipulative therapy and sports taping techniques have recently been shown to provide substantial initial pain relief. Early relief of pain in the rehabilitation program helps accelerate recovery and most importantly motivates the client to persist with the therapeutic exercise program. The manipulative therapy and taping treatments presented in this masterclass warrant consideration in the clinical best practice management of LE, and serve as a model for other similar musculoskeletal conditions.     

The chiropractor's role in pain management for oncology patients

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to present and discuss the idea that chiropractors can be key contributors to the pain management of oncology patients. DISCUSSION: Although it is an oncologist who institutes the necessary treatment for a cancer patient's primary disease process, a chiropractor can help provide noninvasive and non-pharmacologic options for decreasing pain and improving function. As part of a cancer rehabilitation team, the chiropractor can provide treatment that may significantly enhance a cancer patient's quality of life at any stage in the disease process. Treatment may benefit those patients experiencing pain from the side effects of treatment or from the disease process itself. The chiropractor's treatment may include manipulation, soft tissue techniques, physiotherapeutic modalities, exercise, and ergonomic counseling. CONCLUSION: This article describes the potential benefits of chiropractic for cancer patients in the area of pain management and quality of life. Two specific case studies are presented in which cancer patients' quality of life benefited from chiropractic treatment.     

Fibromyalgia patients' own experiences of video self-interpretation: a phenomenological-hermeneutic study

Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) is a disorder with musculoskeletal pain as well as many other psychological and physical symptoms. Up-to-date treatment strategies for this disorder often have only limited effects. In order to develop more effective and adequate treatment tools, a phenomenological-hermeneutic study inspired by Paul Ricoeur was used. FMS patients viewed themselves on videotapes. After the video sessions the FMS patients were interviewed about thoughts that were triggered when they saw themselves on videotape. Video interpretation in combination with interviews facilitated a communication and understanding between the patient and therapist about the patients' body and self-image. The results showed that with the help of video interpretation, the patients' body and self-awareness could be improved, which in turn may help therapists to find better treatment tools for a more directed and individually adapted treatment. This is of importance as this method can be useful to FMS patients for early identification of maladaptive movement patterns and for a better integration their body and self-image. By allowing the FMS patients to interpret themselves from videotape, the FMS patients become more aware of both body and self-signals, which make it easier for the clinician/therapist to know where to start to work with each patients' specific rehabilitation programme.     

Pain during in-patient rehabilitation after traumatic spinal cord injury

In this prospective study, we surveyed the pain experience of 40 participants during the in-patient rehabilitation period following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Twenty-eight patients (70% of the study population) had musculoskeletal (MS) pain or neuropathic (NP) pain. Pain responded positively to physical therapy and analgesics. A numerical pain scale decreased from a mean of 6.36+/-1.7 on admission to 3.2+/-1.94 on discharge (P<0.001). Paraplegic patients were more likely to have MS pain (P=0.001) and NP pain (P=0.046). There was no relationship between completeness of injury, or spinal surgery, and type of pain encountered. There was also no significant difference in the modified Barthel index between patients with and without pain on admission and discharge. We conclude that pain is a common experience in SCI patients and that it can be reduced significantly by the end of in-patient rehabilitation.     

Intensität von Gliederschmerzen und Erschöpfung bei Fibromyalgiesyndrom, depressiven Störungen und chronischen Rückenschmerzen

Background

A symptom-based diagnosis of fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) without tender point examination is needed for primary care. We tested if a symptom-based diagnosis of FMS can be founded on the intensity of the symptoms musculoskeletal pain and fatigue.

Methods

FMS patients from 4 different settings (n=464 members of the German Fibromyalgia Association DFV, n=33 from a private practice of rheumatology, n=36 from a tertiary care pain department, n=162 from medical expertise), patients with depressive disorders from 2 different settings (n=24 from a university department of psychiatry, n=311 from an out-patient university psychosomatic department), patients with chronic back pain from an out-patient training center (n=691) and persons from a representative German population sample (n=1977) were compared using the subscales of the Giessen subjective complaints list GBB 24.

Results

The greatest mean differences between FMS patients and the other samples were found within the subscales“limb pains” and“fatigue”. FMS patients scored higher in the subscales“heart problems” and“dyspepsia”, but both subscales did not contribute to a differentiation of the samples. The rates of reclassification of the subsamples based on the subcales“limb pains” and“fatigue” ranged between 80 and 93%.

Conclusion

High levels of the intensity of chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain and chronic fatigue may form the basis of a symptom-based diagnosis of FMS.     

The role of motor learning and neuroplasticity in designing rehabilitation approaches for musculoskeletal pain disorders

The extent of cortical neuroplastic changes has been shown to be a key neurophysiological feature that correlates with the level of functional recovery. Therefore, rehabilitation efforts that attempt to maximize cortical reorganization provide the greatest potential for rehabilitation success. This paper reviews the evidence of cortical neuroplastic changes that have been shown to occur in association with experimental or chronic pain disorders. Further, the promising role of novel motor-skill training is discussed in order to best direct the clinician to optimize rehabilitation strategies for patients with musculoskeletal pain disorders.     

Gender-specific aspects in chronic low back pain rehabilitation

Gender-specific Aspects in Chronic Low Back Pain Rehabilitation.Little is known about gender differences in utilisation, outcomes and evaluation of orthopaedic rehabilitation for chronic low back pain. The purpose of this article is to review and analyse the literature on rehabilitation and recovery of men and women with chronic back pain. In Western societies, chronic back pain is one of the most common causes for utilising medical rehabilitation services. In general no significant gender differences in the prevalences of back pain are found, but men are more sick-listed and early retired due to musculoskeletal diseases. Also, more men than women participate in medical rehabilitation programmes. National and international studies pinpoint the fact that differences exist between women and men with regard to participating in an orthopaedic rehabilitation programme. Additionally there is some evidence that different physical and psychological therapy services have different effects on health status of women and men. Mixed results are available regarding gender differences concerning the outcomes of rehabilitation programmes. Rehabilitation activities after discharge from in-patient programmes and these being performed within the home setting are primary indicators of recovery. Gender differences have been identified regarding various types of activities, apparently because especially family roles interfere with activity. Further research must be conducted so as to increase the understanding of women's and men's experiences relative to orthopaedic diseases and orthopaedic rehabilitation services.     

The role of botulinum toxin in whiplash injuries

Cervical whiplash injuries are common and yet poorly understood. Several of these cases become chronic for unknown reasons and defy most forms of musculoskeletal therapy. Botulinum toxin has shown promise in selected cases in which soft tissue injury predominates. In conjunction with a good biomechanical assessment and appropriate physical rehabilitation techniques, this new approach to treatment may offer a way of treating the central and peripheral dysfunction that characterizes this condition.     

Recovery from acute injury: Clinical,methodological and philosophical considerations

Background.?The foundational basis for rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injury as a profession rests upon the ability of an organism to recover from a deviation in homeostasis, and the clinician's ability to influence that process. Much work has been done in an effort to describe and predict recovery from acute injury, in particular soft tissue injuries of the spine (whiplash and low back pain). Recent reviews have identified inconsistencies in the criteria for identifying recovery in this literature that hamper attempts at knowledge translation.

Purpose.?This article is intended to stimulate discussion around a new, standardised and acceptable set of criteria for discriminating between the injured individual who reaches a satisfying end to the experience of injury and the individual who does not reach that end.

Conclusions.?Self-discrepancy theory and self-determination theory are used to frame the discussion. It is hoped that the introduction of a new paradigm will lead to the development of more standardised, acceptable and useful outcomes, and will facilitate data synthesis from studies on prognosis and intervention for acute musculoskeletal injury.     

Sonoelastography: A powerful technique in musculoskeletal imaging

Sonoelastography is a powerful method available to observe the musculoskeletal system, and appears particularly valuable in detecting early tendinopathies, pursuing complaints of localized musculoskeletal pain, analyzing soft tissue masses, and research applications in musculoskeletal medicine.     

Physical characteristics of patients with symptomatic lumbar spondylolysis who have recurrent low back pain after returning to sports

IntroductionTo determine the physical characteristics of patients with symptomatic lumbar spondylolysis (LS) who have recurrent low back pain after returning to sports.MethodFifty-three adolescent patients with symptomatic LS participated in this study. Patients with symptomatic LS were assessed for flexibility, trunk muscle strength, and Functional Movement Screen (FMS) score, and then divided into two groups according to the degree of pain experienced one month after returning to sport.ResultsTwenty-four patients returned to their pre-injury sports level without pain (excellent group), while the remaining 29 patients had pain and decreased activity level during sports (pain group). The excellent group had a significantly higher shoulder mobility score on the FMS than the pain group, and the effect size was larger. However, there were no significant differences in body flexibility, muscle tightness, trunk muscle strength, or other FMS items.DiscussionThe most important finding of this study is that patients with LS who have recurrent low back pain after returning to sports are characterized by poor functional upper body movement.ConclusionsBecause upper body functional movement pattern may be an important factor in the management of patients with symptomatic LS, preventive rehabilitation to enhance upper body mobility and motor control should be considered for these patients.     

序贯康复护理在腹部带蒂皮瓣修复手部软组织缺损中的应用

目的探讨序贯康复护理在腹部带蒂皮瓣修复手部软组织缺损中的应用效果。方法采用方便抽样法,选取2019年1—12月于无锡市第九人民医院手外科行腹部带蒂皮瓣修复治疗的手部软组织缺损患者71例为研究对象。根据患者入院时间先后顺序将其分为对照组(n=35)和观察组(n=36)。对照组给予腹部带蒂皮瓣修复手部软组织缺损常规康复护理,观察组给予序贯康复护理。比较两组患者移植皮瓣、关节活动和日常生活活动能力恢复情况以及患肢疼痛和舒适度评价。结果观察组患者移植皮瓣受压、扭转、折叠、血运异常发生次数以及患肢疼痛程度低于对照组(P0.001),肩关节和肘关节主动活动以及穿衣、洗漱、进食和如厕等日常生活活动能力恢复情况优于对照组(P0.05),舒适度评价高于对照组(P0.001)。结论序贯康复护理能有效减少移植皮瓣异常,减轻患肢疼痛,改善肩关节和肘关节活动,促进患者日常生活活动能力恢复,提高舒适度,值得临床进一步推广。     

A case of mistaken identity? The role of injury representations in chronic musculoskeletal pain

Abstract

Purpose: To explore how patients construe bodily injury, examine how injury representations change over the course of a rehabilitation program and how injury representations influence adaptation and recovery trajectories.

Methods: A case study method was used with qualitative interviews as the primary data source. Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted three times over the course of a 12-week intensive interdisciplinary occupational rehabilitation program with one interview 1 month following discharge. To capture changes in rehabilitation trajectories, data analysis employed a narrative approach informed by Bury (progression, regression, and stability) and Frank’s (chaos, restitution, and quest) approaches.

Results: Sixteen patients (10 men and 6 women) were disabled as a result of persistent pain and impairment from a variety of work injuries participated. Progression/restitution narratives were characterized by the transformation of bone and nerve problems to include soft tissue elements. These participants expanded their scope of injury representations and appraisal to include neurobiological aspects of chronic pain and dimensions of psychosocial well-being, and linked diagnostic representations to self-management strategies in a functional manner.

Conclusion: Body representations of injury morphology and pain mechanisms are important objects of fear and acceptance for injury recovery. Active strategies that encourage a “hands on” understanding of diagnosis may prove most effective in treating persistent pain.

• Implications for Rehabilitation

• Patient representations of pain and body injury are windows into the personal experience of individuals with chronic musculoskeletal pain.

• When patients enter programs, practitioners need to assess what the patient believes is wrong with their body and what will be helpful in rectifying the problem.

• Based on their initial assessment, practitioners need to direct education and activity toward shifting patient beliefs to include elements of soft tissue and a broader scope of pain sensitization and psychological impact. Activity-based intervention is essential for creating coherence between injury and pain representations and coping action.

• During rehabilitation, practitioners need to monitor patient beliefs about their injury. Shifting beliefs are signs that the patient is adopting a more adaptive cognitive stance toward their injury. Lack of movement indicates that the message is not getting through and the approach needs to be modified.

• When working with patients to transform beliefs, a collaborative approach might be best to increase trust and reduce reactance.

     

Mechanisms and efficacy of heat and cold therapies for musculoskeletal injury

Nonpharmacological treatment strategies for acute musculoskeletal injury revolve around pain reduction and promotion of healing in order to facilitate a return to normal function and activity. Heat and cold therapy modalities are often used to facilitate this outcome despite prevalent confusion about which modality (heat vs cold) to use and when to use it. Most recommendations for the use of heat and cold therapy are based on empirical experience, with limited evidence to support the efficacy of specific modalities. This literature review provides information for practitioners on the use of heat and cold therapies based on the mechanisms of action, physiological effects, and the medical evidence to support their clinical use. The physiological effects of cold therapy include reductions in pain, blood flow, edema, inflammation, muscle spasm, and metabolic demand. There is limited evidence from randomized clinical trials (RCTs) supporting the use of cold therapy following acute musculoskeletal injury and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). The physiological effects of heat therapy include pain relief and increases in blood flow, metabolism, and elasticity of connective tissues. There is limited overall evidence to support the use of topical heat in general; however, RCTs have shown that heat-wrap therapy provides short-term reductions in pain and disability in patients with acute low back pain and provides significantly greater pain relief of DOMS than does cold therapy. There remains an ongoing need for more sufficiently powered high-quality RCTs on the effects of cold and heat therapy on recovery from acute musculoskeletal injury and DOMS.     

Pain induced by low-grade stress in patients with fibromyalgia and chronic shoulder/neck pain, relation to surface electromyography.

The mechanisms of pain causation in fibromyalgia (FMS) and chronic shoulder/neck pain (SNP) are still debated. We wanted to compare muscle activity and pain development during and after low-grade mental stress in FMS and SNP patients. Twenty-three women with FMS, 29 women with chronic SNP and 35 healthy women performed a stressful task lasting 60 min followed by a 30 min recovery period. We recorded surface electromyography over the trapezius, neck, temporalis and frontalis muscles. Subjects reported their pain at the corresponding locations together with the development of fatigue and perceived tension. Significant differences between FMS and SNP groups were not observed either for muscular or subjective responses. SNP patients and controls responded with more pain in the trapezius and neck regions than in the forehead, in contrast to FMS patients who had a more generalized pain response. Development of pain, tension and fatigue was not related to muscle activity for any group. We conclude that FMS and SNP patients have similar pain and electromyographic responses. The results suggest that similar pathophysiological mechanisms are involved although the responses are more generalised in FMS than in SNP patients. Muscular activity did not explain the pain which developed during the stressful task for either group. Pain lasted longer during recovery in both FMS and SNP patients compared to healthy controls, possibly a result of disease-related sensitisation in pain pathways.