Why are the low birthweight rates in Brazil higher in richer than in poorer municipalities? Exploring the epidemiological paradox of low birthweight

Socio-economic disadvantage is usually associated with low birthweight (LBW). However, it has been shown that Mexican Americans, despite being economically less advantaged, present LBW rates that are similar to or lower than those found among white women in the US. This fact has been called 'the epidemiological paradox of low birthweight'. Natality data from Brazil revealed the existence of a similar paradox: LBW rates are higher in more developed than in less developed regions within the country. In this study, data from two population-based cohort studies carried out in the nineties, including 2439 births in Sao Luis, a poor city in north-eastern Brazil, and 2839 births in Ribeirao Preto, a socio-economically well-off city in south-eastern Brazil, were used to explore this paradox. The method proposed by Wilcox and Russell and a graphic analysis of the frequency distribution of birthweight according to gestational age were used to provide indirect information about possible gestational age misclassification. Contrary to expectations, the LBW rate was higher in Ribeirao Preto than in Sao Luis (10.7 vs. 7.6%, P <0.001), while preterm birth (PTB) rate (12.7 vs. 12.1%, P=0.520) and percentage of small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants (12.5 vs. 13.5%, P=0.290) were similar for the two cities. However, SGA rate among preterm infants was higher in Ribeirao Preto (16.4 vs. 9.8%, P=0.014). A bimodal distribution of birthweight was observed for children with less than 32 weeks in Sao Luis. As estimated by the Wilcox and Russell method, the residual distribution was greater in Ribeirao Preto than in Sao Luis (3.4 vs. 2.4%). Part of the LBW paradox observed for the two cities was due to the higher PTB rate and higher number of preterm SGA infants in Ribeirao Preto. Factors such as greater medical intervention in preterm newborns close to the end of pregnancy in more developed municipalities, artefacts in the determination of gestational age, and the under-registration of livebirths and registration of livebirths as stillbirths in less developed municipalities may explain why LBW rates in Brazil are higher in richer than in poorer municipalities.     

Depression and clinical illness: comorbidity in a geriatric outpatient clinic

The aim of this study was to investigate the association between depression and clinical illness among a group of elderly in the city of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. The study population included 1,120 individuals over 60 years of age treated at a geriatric outpatient clinic. Crude and stratified prevalence ratios were calculated. Data were stratified by gender, age, and nutritional status. Ninety-five percent of the sample presented at least one chronic disease, the most frequent being hypertension (62.2%), osteoarthritis (40%), and urinary incontinence (35%). Depression was diagnosed in 23.4%, more commonly among women (PR = 1.28; 95%CI: 0.99-1.65) and those under 75 years (PR = 1.24; 95%CI: 1.00-1.53). There was an association between number of chronic diseases (> 3) and depression (PR = 1.31; 95%CI: 1.04-1.66). Parkinson's disease was associated with depression, more evident among females (PR = 1.59; 95%CI: 1.05-2.41) and in the 70-79-year age group (PR = 2.02; 95%CI: 1.28-3.20). The study demonstrates an association between depression and chronic comorbidity. Since many elderly present multiple chronic diseases, health professionals should be alert to the possibility of depressive symptoms in these patients.     

中国中老年人午睡时长与抑郁症状的关联——基于CHARLS数据分析

目的 探究午睡时长与中老年人抑郁症状发生的关联。方法 将2011年中国健康与养老追踪调查(China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, CHARLS)调查的45岁及以上的中老年人信息作为基线数据,随访该队列至2018年,采用COX比例风险模型分析不同午睡时长与中老年人抑郁症状发生的关联。结果 该队列随访期间抑郁症状的发生率为6.94%。COX比例风险模型结果表明,午睡≥90 min/d与抑郁症状发生高风险相关(HR=1.14;95%CI:1.02～1.29);亚组分析结果显示,男性午睡时长≥90 min/d(HR=1.30;95%CI:1.11～1.53)、45～64岁组午睡时长在60～89 min/d(HR=1.14;95%CI:1.01～1.29)及≥90 min/d(HR=1.17;95%CI:1.02～1.34)与抑郁症状发生高风险相关。结论 午睡时长与中老年人抑郁症状发生相关联,特别是在男性及中年人群体中。     

大学生抑郁症状现况及其与负性生活事件的关系

目的 了解大学生抑郁症状现况及其与负性生活事件的关系,为大学生身心健康发展及心理健康教育工作的开展提供参考。方法 采用分层抽样法抽取3 609名大学生,使用流调中心抑郁自评量表、青少年生活事件量表以及自编大学生一般情况调查表进行调查。结果 被调查的大学生抑郁症状检出率为48.24%( 95% CI: 46.52% ~ 49.93%)。存在抑郁症状学生的生活事件及其各因子的得分均高于无抑郁症状的学生( 均P＜0.01)。支持和帮助的朋友是抑郁症状的保护因素( OR = 0.324, 95% CI: 0.139 ~ 0.758%);宗教信仰( OR = 1.808, 95% CI: 1.131 ~ 2.891)和家庭暴力( OR = 3.567, 95% CI:为1.551 ~ 8.205)是抑郁症状的危险因素;生活事件中,负性人际关系事件( OR = 1.781, 95% CI: 1.392 ~ 2.279)、负性学习压力事件( OR = 1.551, 95% CI: 1.207 ~ 1.993)、负性健康适应事件( OR = 1.302, 95% CI: 1.053 ~ 1.609)是抑郁症状的危险因素( 均P＜0.05)。结论 大学生抑郁症状检出率较高,负性生活事件是大学生抑郁症状的有效预测因素,应采取必要的预防和治疗措施,促进大学生身心健康。     

中学生抑郁症状的影响因素分析

目的 探讨中学生出现抑郁症状的影响因素,建立风险预测的列线图模型,为防控中学生抑郁提供理论依据。方法 采用分层整群抽样的方法,抽取大连市城市和农村中学生共3 470名,使用学生健康行为调查表及抑郁量表进行问卷调查;采用多因素logistic回归分析抑郁症状的影响因素,并建立列线图,预测中学生出现抑郁症状的风险。 结果 中学生的抑郁症状检出率为24.12%,肯定有抑郁症状的检出率为16.22%。遭受校园欺凌（OR = 2.748,95%CI:2.257～3.346）、被家长打骂（OR = 2.025,95%CI:1.679～2.433）、学段（职高:OR = 1.883,95%CI:1.286～2.758;高中:OR = 1.242,95%CI:1.001～1.541）、上网时间越长（≥3 h:OR = 1.773,95%CI:1.366～2.302;2～＜3 h:OR = 1.525,95%CI:1.190～1.954）、女生（OR = 1.352,95%CI:1.141～1.603）、农村地区（OR = 1.351,95%CI:1.126～1.622）均是中学生抑郁症状检出的危险因素;体育课时数多（2 节:OR = 0.685,95%CI:0.504～0.931;≥3 节:OR = 0.583,95%CI:0.425～0.799）、睡眠时间充足（OR = 0.676,95%CI:0.562～0.812）都是中学生抑郁症状检出的保护因素;基于以上影响因素建立的列线图模型具有较好的区分度（一致性指数C - index = 0.700,95%CI:0.680～0.721）和准确度（Hosmer - Lemeshow检验χ2 = 2.885,P = 0.941）。 结论 遭受校园欺凌、被家长打骂、职高或高中、上网时间越长、女生、来自农村地区、体育课时数少、睡眠时间不足的中学生更容易出现抑郁症状,可以利用列线图直观、有效地预测中学生出现抑郁症状的风险,从而有针对性地对高危群体及时采取干预措施。     

Association between depressive symptoms and alcohol abuse among students from Bucaramanga, Colombia

Various studies have reported an important association between depressive symptoms and alcohol abuse. However, the topic had not been investigated in Colombian students. This study focused on the association between depressive symptoms and alcohol abuse among high school students in Bucaramanga, Colombia. A self-reported anonymous questionnaire was answered by 560 15-19-year-olds. The survey included the Zung Self-Reported Depression Scale, CAGE Questionnaire for Alcohol Use, and VESPA questionnaire (Epidemiological Surveillance of Psychoactive Drugs). Logistic regression was used to establish associations. Prevalence was 5.7% for alcohol dependence and 39.5% for depressive symptoms. Associations were found between alcohol abuse and depressive symptoms (PR = 3.33; 95%CI: 1.41-7.83), poor self-perceived academic achievement (PR = 2.59; 95%CI: 1.16-5.37), and smoking (PR = 2.47; 95%CI: 1.13-5.40). The authors conclude that there is a strong association between depressive symptoms and alcohol abuse in Colombian high school students. Preventive programs are needed to identify early depressive disorders and alcohol abuse.     

Asthma in 13-14-year-old schoolchildren in the city of Nova Iguaçu, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil: prevalence, severity, and gender differences

This study aimed to assess the prevalence and severity of asthma and related symptoms and the associations with gender in 13-14-year-old schoolchildren in the city of Nova Igua?u, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. The cross-sectional study used the self-applied International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) questionnaire. The sample included 3,033 students randomly selected from 37 public and private schools. Prevalence of "any history of wheezing" was 26%, as compared to 11.7% within the last 12 months ("current asthma"), and was higher among girls (PR = 1.46; 95%CI: 1.31-1.62 and PR = 1.72; 95%CI: 1.35-2.21). Symptoms associated with severity, like "sleep disorders" and "speech limited by wheezing" were associated with female gender (PR = 2.57; 95%CI: 1.77-3.73 and PR = 2.07; 95%CI: 1.25-3.43). Although asthma prevalence was lower than in other Brazilian cities, it was still high among schoolchildren in Nova Igua?u, and was more frequent and severe among girls. Further research is needed to explain the observed differences.     

成都市社区老年人睡眠障碍与抑郁症状的相关性研究

目的 探讨成都市社区老年人睡眠障碍与抑郁症状发生之间的关联。方法 以成都市锦江区60岁及以上的老年人为研究对象,采用中文版匹兹堡睡眠质量指数量表（Pittsburgh sleep quality index,PSQI）评估社区老年人的睡眠障碍,包括主观睡眠质量、入睡时间、睡眠时长、睡眠效率、睡眠紊乱、日间功能障碍、催眠药物使用共7个睡眠维度。采用老年抑郁问卷自评版（the self-reported version of geriatric depression inventory,GDI-SR）评估老年人抑郁症状发生情况。采用二分类logistic回归分析社区老年人不同睡眠维度问题与抑郁症状之间的关系。结果 本研究共纳入587名社区老年人,抑郁症状检出率为16.0%,总体睡眠障碍率为39.5%。社区老年人主观睡眠质量（OR=2.738,95%CI:1.394～5.378）、睡眠紊乱（OR=2.351,95%CI:1.060～5.211）、日间功能障碍（OR=5.063,95%CI:2.911～8.805）、使用催眠药物（OR=2.521,95%CI:1.164～5.461）与抑郁症状...     

Birth cohort differences in cardiovascular risk factors in a Brazilian population of older elderly: the Bambuí Cohort Study of Aging (1997 and 2008)

The aim of this study was to investigate whether cohort differences exist in the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors among older elderly from the Bambuí Cohort Study of Aging. Participants were those aged 71-81 years at two points in time a decade apart: 457 in 1997 (earlier cohort) and 553 in 2008 (recent cohort). The prevalence of hypertension (PR = 1.27; 95%CI: 1.19-1.36) and of diabetes mellitus (PR = 1.39; 95%CI: 1.06-1.83) was higher in the recent cohort compared to the earlier one, regardless of sex. The recent cohort had a lower prevalence of smoking (PR = 0.58; 95%CI: 0.42-0.80), and lower total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol ratio level (PR = 0.85; 95%CI: 0.80-0.89). There was a 136% increase in the pharmacologic treatment of diabetes and a 56% increase in pharmacologic management of hypertension in 2008 in comparison with 1997. Overall, the number of cardiovascular risk factors in the recent cohort remained similar to that of the early cohort.     

Socio-economic determinants and self-reported depressive symptoms during postpartum period

The researchers' aims were to estimate the prevalence of postpartum depressive symptoms in Italy. Cross-sectional data from the survey, "Health and use of health care in Italy" were analyzed. The authors focused on 5,812 women, pregnant some time during five years before the survey. Multiple logistic regression was used to evaluate risk factors independently associated with postpartum depressive symptoms. Evaluation of seasonal trends was also performed.In the total sample, 23.5% (n = 1,365) reported having suffered postpartum depressive symptoms: 20.7% experienced baby blues, and 2.8% postpartum depression. Factors significantly associated with baby blues were, among others, living in northern or central areas (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.88; 95%CI 1.57-2.15 and 1.40; 95%CI 1.20-1.63, respectively), history of depression (aOR 1.34; 95%CI 1.15-1.56), and attendance at antenatal classes (aOR 1.13; 95%CI 1.04-1.22). Factors significantly associated with postpartum depression were: anamnesis of depression (aOR 3.32; 95%CI 2.69-4.09), gaining more than 16 kg of weight during pregnancy (aOR 1.48; 95%CI 1.03-2.12), and undergoing a cesarean section (planned: aOR 1.56; 95%CI 1.05-2.29; unplanned: aOR 1.78; 95%CI 1.16-2.73). Multiparity was a protective factor both for baby blues (aOR 0.80; 95%CI 0.70-0.91), and postpartum depression (aOR 0.71; 95%CI 0.51-0.98). No clear seasonality was observed for postpartum depression, while for baby blues a certain aggregation of events was registered during the central months of the year. The authors' study highlighted variables associated with baby blues and postpartum depression to target screening for women for postpartum depressive symptoms.     

某电网企业职工职业紧张与抑郁症状的关联研究

目的 了解某电网企业职工职业紧张与抑郁症状的现况及相关性,探究抑郁症状的影响因素.方法 选择某电网企业1 091名职工为研究对象,采用工作内容问卷(JCQ)和付出-回报失衡问卷(ERIQ)测量职业紧张情况,采用中文版流行病学研究中心用抑郁量表(CES-D)调查职工抑郁症状.采用多因素logistic回归分析抑郁症状的影...     

中国中老年人抑郁症状与高血压发病风险关联的前瞻性队列研究

目的 探讨中国中老年人抑郁症状对高血压发病的影响。方法 基于中国健康与养老追踪调查(CHARLS)2015年和2018年的数据,选取11 281例基线没有高血压且有完善抑郁量表评估问卷的中老年人（年龄≥45岁）作为研究对象,进行随访调查。抑郁情况采用流调中心抑郁量表（CES-D）简表进行测量。采用Cox比例风险回归模型探讨抑郁症状及其严重程度与高血压发病风险的关联。结果 在平均时长为2.85年的随访中,1 045名研究对象发生高血压。多因素Cox回归分析结果显示,抑郁症状评分每增加1分,高血压的发生风险增加2% (HR=1.02,95%CI:1.01～1.03)。与无抑郁症状的研究对象相比,有抑郁症状的研究对象高血压发病风险增加22%(HR=1.22,95%CI:1.07～1.39)。进一步分析抑郁症状严重程度与高血压发病风险的结果显示,与无抑郁症状的研究对象相比,轻度抑郁症状的研究对象高血压发病风险增加17%(HR=1.17,95%CI:1.01～1.34),重度抑郁症状的研究对象高血压发病风险增加53%(HR=1.53,95%CI:1.19～1.97)。结论 中国中老年人群中抑郁症状与高血压发病风险增加显著相关,且抑郁症状越严重,高血压发病风险越高。     

中学生视屏和睡眠时间与抑郁症状的相关性

  目的  了解南京市中学生抑郁症状现况,探讨视屏时间、睡眠时间与抑郁症状的关系,为预防青少年抑郁提供科学依据。  方法  分层整群随机选取南京市城区5所中学、郊县3所中学共2 010名学生,通过问卷调查中学生视屏时间和睡眠时间,应用流调中心用抑郁量表(CES-D)评价抑郁症状。  结果  27.71%(557名)的中学生存在抑郁症状(CES-D≥16分)。Logistic回归分析显示,视屏时间>2 h/d(OR=1.90,95%CI=1.53~2.37)、睡眠时间 < 7 h/d(OR=2.54,95%CI=1.88~3.42)与抑郁症状发生风险增加有关。按视屏时间分层分析发现,睡眠时间 < 7 h/d与抑郁症状的关联在视屏时间>2 h/d组(OR=2.46,95%CI=1.64~3.71)高于视屏时间≤2 h/d组(OR=2.35,95%CI=1.51~3.65)。  结论  南京市中学生抑郁症状检出率较高,视屏时间长、睡眠时间少与抑郁症状风险增加相关。应重点关注视屏行为和睡眠不足联合暴露下青少年的心理健康。     

Gender differences in self-reported morbidity: evidence from a population-based study in southern Brazil

This paper aims to assess variations in self-reported morbidity between men and women using six different measures of reported illness. The cross-sectional study was conducted in the municipality of Rio Grande, southern Brazil. Demographic, socioeconomic, and morbidity data were collected from a probabilistic sample of 1,260 persons aged 15 years or over, using a specific questionnaire. Statistical analysis included a multivariate Poisson regression analysis. Prevalence Ratios (PR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated. After adjusting for some confounding variables (age, race, unemployment, marital status, income, social class, and education), women showed greater risk of any symptom (PR = 3.21; 95%CI: 2.71-3.83), three or more symptoms (PR = 4.22; 95%CI: 2.97-5.98), potentially serious symptoms (PR = 1.75; 95%CI: 1.31-2.34), poor/fair health (PR = 1.78; 95%CI: 1.37-2.32), and minor psychiatric disorders (PR = 1.76; 95%CI: 1.31-2.37). The study revealed dissimilarity in self-reported morbidity between men and women in southern Brazil, but with different degrees depending on type of morbidity. This excess can be explained by gender difference in health-seeking behavior for perceiving or reporting health problems.     

Factors associated with preterm birth in Campina Grande, Paraíba State, Brazil: a case-control study

A case-control study (2008-2009) analyzed risk factors for preterm birth in the city of Campina Grande, Paraíba State, Brazil. A total of 341 preterm births and 424 controls were included. A multiple logistic regression model was used. Risk factors for preterm birth were: previous history of preterm birth (OR = 2.32; 95%CI: 1.25-4.29), maternal age (OR = 2.00; 95%CI: 1.00-4.03), inadequate prenatal care (OR = 2.15; 95%CI: 1.40-3.27), inadequate maternal weight gain (OR = 2.33; 95%CI: 1.45-3.75), maternal physical injury (OR = 2.10; 95%CI: 1.22-3.60), hypertension with eclampsia (OR = 17.08; 95%CI: 3.67-79.43) and without eclampsia (OR = 6.42; 95%CI: 3.50-11.76), hospitalization (OR = 5.64; 95%CI: 3.47-9.15), altered amniotic fluid volume (OR = 2.28; 95%CI: 1.32-3.95), vaginal bleeding (OR = 1.54; 95%CI: 1.01-2.34), and multiple gestation (OR = 22.65; 95%CI: 6.22-82.46). High and homogeneous prevalence of poverty and low maternal schooling among both cases and controls may have contributed to the fact that socioeconomic variables did not remain significantly associated with preterm birth.     

HIV阳性男男性行为者抑郁现状及相关因素研究

目的 了解HIV阳性男男性行为者（men who have sex with men, MSM）抑郁现状及相关因素,为提高其心理健康水平提供依据。方法 采用方便抽样的方法,于2016年7-8月在南京市某医院对参加抗病毒治疗的 HIV阳性MSM进行问卷调查。采用logistic回归分析抑郁的相关因素。结果 抑郁症状发生率为38.6%（134/347）。多因素logistic回归分析显示,高社会支持（OR=0.955,95%CI:0.914~0.998）和高自尊（OR=0.788,95%CI:0.731~0.849）的HIV阳性MSM发生抑郁的可能性较小。 确诊时间＜12 月（OR=1.943,95%CI:1.080~3.493）和高感知歧视者（OR=1.049,95%CI:1.021~1.078）更有可能出现抑郁症状。结论 HIV阳性MSM抑郁症状的发生率较高,尤其是新发感染者。需要制定心理干预、咨询、治疗相结合的综合服务模式,以减少歧视,提高社会支持水平,缓解他们的负性情绪,从而改善其生存质量。     

天津市初中生健康危险行为潜在类别与抑郁症状的关联

  目的  探讨初中生健康危险行为的潜在类别及其与抑郁症状的关联,为识别抑郁症状高风险群体和制定有针对性的综合干预措施提供科学依据。  方法  采用多阶段分层整群抽样方法,抽取天津市16个区的8 175名初中生进行问卷调查,内容包括人口学特征、抑郁症状和健康危险行为。使用Mplus 8.3软件进行健康危险行为的潜在类别分析,使用SPSS 23.0软件进行描述和统计分析。  结果  天津市初中生抑郁症状检出率为17.8%,城区(19.4%)高于郊区(16.5%)(χ2=11.62),女生(20.2%)高于男生(15.5%)(χ2=30.58)(P值均＜0.01)。经潜在类别分析,将天津市初中生健康危险行为分为健康组(84.0%)、不良饮食组(3.8%)和多种风险行为组(12.2%)3个潜在类别。多因素Logistic回归分析显示,在调整地区、年级、性别、家庭类型后,与健康组相比,不良饮食组和多种风险行为组的初中生检出抑郁症状的风险更高[OR值(95%CI)分别为2.82(2.17~3.66),4.31(3.67~5.05),P值均＜0.01)]。  结论  天津市初中生抑郁症状问题较为严峻,健康危险行为潜在类别与抑郁症状间存在关联。应根据各潜在类别的特征早期识别抑郁高风险初中生,制定有针对性的综合干预方案,使干预措施的成本-效益最大化。     

Satisfaction with the neighborhood environment and health in older elderly: cross-sectional evidence from the Bambuí Cohort Study of Aging

In order to investigate the association between satisfaction with the neighborhood environment and self-rated health among older elderly, data from 814 participants of the eleventh wave of the Bambuí Cohort Study of Aging were analyzed using robust Poisson regression analyses. Those elderly with higher satisfaction with their neighborhoods (PR = 0.75; 95%CI: 0.63-0.87) were less likely to report worse self-rated health. The number of chronic diseases (two, PR = 1.69; 95%CI: 1.05-2.70, three or more, PR = 1.99, 95%CI: 1.27-3.13), difficulty in performing daily activities (PR = 1.51; 95%CI: 1.28-1.78), presence of depressive symptoms (PR = 1.68; 95%CI: 1.44-1.95) and frequency of leisure-time exercise in previous 90 days (less than once a week, PR =1.24; 95%CI: 1.03-1.50) were all positively and significantly associated with poor self-rated health. This study provided empirical evidence that satisfaction with the neighborhood environment was associated with the health of the older elderly. The findings further suggest the potential importance of including this indicator in analyses of place and health among the elderly.     

Depressive symptoms in Hispanic and non-Hispanic White rural elderly: the San Luis Valley Health and Aging Study

Literature on depression in rural and Hispanic elderly adults is sparse. This report describes the prevalence of depressive symptoms in 1,151 community-dwelling, Hispanic and non-Hispanic White participants in the San Luis Valley Health and Aging Study, conducted in rural Colorado during 1993-1995. The prevalence and odds ratios of high depressive symptoms, defined as a Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale score of > or = 16, were calculated. The crude prevalence of high depressive symptoms was 11.4% (95% confidence interval: 9.6, 13.6). Female gender, chronic diseases, dissatisfaction with social support, living alone, and lower income and education were associated with depressive symptoms. There were no ethnic differences in the men. The age-adjusted odds ratio of depressive symptoms in Hispanic women compared with that of non-Hispanic White women was 2.11 (95% confidence interval: 1.32, 3.38). After adjustment for multiple sociodemographic and health risk factors, the odds ratio in Hispanic women was 2.12 (95% confidence interval: 1.19, 3.80). Higher depressive symptoms in Hispanic women varied by acculturation level. The odds ratio in the high acculturation stratum was 1.56 (95% confidence interval: 0.75, 3.27) and in the low acculturation stratum was 2.51 (95% confidence interval: 1.11, 5.70). A lower acculturation level may increase the risk for depression in older Hispanic women.     

Overweight among adults in Pernambuco State, Brazil: prevalence and associated factors

In order to evaluate the prevalence of overweight and associated factors in Pernambuco State, Brazil, a cross-sectional population-based study was conducted in 2006, including 1,580 adults 25 to 59 years of age. Overweight was defined as body mass index > 25kg/m2. The conceptual model included demographic, socioeconomic, reproductive, and behavioral variables. Prevalence of overweight was 51.1% (95%CI: 48.6-53.6) and was statistically associated with age over 40 years (PR = 1.27; 95%CI: 1.10-1.46), female gender (PR = 1.29; 95%CI: 1.16-1.43), former smoking (PR = 1.42; 95%CI: 1.20-1.69), higher income (PR = 1.49; 95%CI: 1.30-1.71), and history of early pregnancy (< 18 years) (PR = 1.25; 95%CI: 1.11-1.66). There was no association with alcohol consumption, level of physical activity, or specific foods. The high prevalence of overweight is consistent with epidemic levels of this problem elsewhere in world, and the association with several factors supports its multifactor etiology.