GPU-based optical propagation simulator of a laser-processed crystal block for the X’tal cube PET detector

The X’tal cube is a next-generation DOI detector for PET that we are developing to offer higher resolution and higher sensitivity than is available with present detectors. It is constructed from a cubic monolithic scintillation crystal and silicon photomultipliers which are coupled on various positions of the six surfaces of the cube. A laser-processing technique is applied to produce 3D optical boundaries composed of micro-cracks inside the monolithic scintillator crystal. The current configuration is based on an empirical trial of a laser-processed boundary. There is room to improve the spatial resolution by optimizing the setting of the laser-processed boundary. In fact, the laser-processing technique has high freedom in setting the parameters of the boundary such as size, pitch, and angle. Computer simulation can effectively optimize such parameters. In this study, to design optical characteristics properly for the laser-processed crystal, we developed a Monte Carlo simulator which can model arbitrary arrangements of laser-processed optical boundaries (LPBs). The optical characteristics of the LPBs were measured by use of a setup with a laser and a photo-diode, and then modeled in the simulator. The accuracy of the simulator was confirmed by comparison of position histograms obtained from the simulation and from experiments with a prototype detector composed of a cubic LYSO monolithic crystal with 6 × 6 × 6 segments and multi-pixel photon counters. Furthermore, the simulator was accelerated by parallel computing with general-purpose computing on a graphics processing unit. The calculation speed was about 400 times faster than that with a CPU.     

A prototype PET scanner with DOI-encoding detectors.

Detectors with depth-encoding allow a PET scanner to simultaneously achieve high sensitivity and high spatial resolution. METHODS: A prototype PET scanner, consisting of depth-encoding detectors constructed by dual-ended readout of lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) arrays with 2 position-sensitive avalanche photodiodes (PSAPDs), was developed. The scanner comprised 2 detector plates, each with 4 detector modules, and the LSO arrays consisted of 7 x 7 elements, with a crystal size of 0.9225 x 0.9225 x 20 mm and a pitch of 1.0 mm. The active area of the PSAPDs was 8 x 8 mm. The performance of individual detector modules was characterized. A line-source phantom and a hot-rod phantom were imaged on the prototype scanner in 2 different scanner configurations. The images were reconstructed using 20, 10, 5, 2, and 1 depth-of-interaction (DOI) bins to demonstrate the effects of DOI resolution on reconstructed image resolution and visual image quality. RESULTS: The flood histograms measured from the sum of both PSAPD signals were only weakly depth-dependent, and excellent crystal identification was obtained at all depths. The flood histograms improved as the detector temperature decreased. DOI resolution and energy resolution improved significantly as the temperature decreased from 20 degrees C to 10 degrees C but improved only slightly with a subsequent temperature decrease to 0 degrees C. A full width at half maximum (FWHM) DOI resolution of 2 mm and an FWHM energy resolution of 15% were obtained at a temperature of 10 degrees C. Phantom studies showed that DOI measurements significantly improved the reconstructed image resolution. In the first scanner configuration (parallel detector planes), the image resolution at the center of the field of view was 0.9-mm FWHM with 20 DOI bins and 1.6-mm FWHM with 1 DOI bin. In the second scanner configuration (detector planes at a 40 degrees angle), the image resolution at the center of the field of view was 1.0-mm FWHM with 20 DOI bins and was not measurable when using only 1 bin. CONCLUSION: PET scanners based on this detector design offer the prospect of high and uniform spatial resolution (crystal size, approximately 1 mm; DOI resolution, approximately 2 mm), high sensitivity (20-mm-thick detectors), and compact size (DOI encoding permits detectors to be tightly packed around the subject and minimizes number of detectors needed).     

Basic performance evaluation of a Si-PM array-based LGSO phoswich DOI block detector for a high-resolution small animal PET system

The silicon photomultiplier (Si-PM) is a promising photodetector for PET. However, it remains unclear whether Si-PM can be used for a depth-of-interaction (DOI) detector based on the decay time differences of the scintillator where pulse shape analysis is used. For clarification, we tested the Hamamatsu 4 × 4 Si-PM array (S11065-025P) combined with scintillators that used different decay times to develop DOI block detectors using the pulse shape analysis. First, Ce-doped Gd₂SiO₅ (GSO) scintillators of 0.5 mol% Ce were arranged in a 4 × 4 matrix and were optically coupled to the center of each pixel of the Si-PM array for measurement of the energy resolution as well as its gain variations according to the temperature. Then two types of Ce-doped Lu_1.9Gd_0.1Si0₅ (LGSO) scintillators, 0.025 mol% Ce (decay time: ~31 ns) and 0.75 mol% Ce (decay time: ~46 ns), were optically coupled in the DOI direction, arranged in a 11 × 7 matrix, and optically coupled to a Si-PM array for testing of the possibility of a high-resolution DOI detector. The energy resolution of the Si-PM array-based GSO block detector was 18 ± 4.4 % FWHM for a Cs-137 gamma source (662 keV). Less than 1 mm crystals were clearly resolved in the position map of the LGSO DOI block detector. The peak-to-valley ratio (P/V) derived from the pulse shape spectra of the LGSO DOI block detector was 2.2. These results confirmed that Si-PM array-based DOI block detectors are promising for high-resolution small animal PET systems.     

Simulation study optimizing the number of photodetection faces for the X’tal cube PET detector with separated crystal segments

We are developing a novel PET detector with 3D isotropic resolution called a crystal (X’tal) cube. The X’tal cube detector consists of a crystal block all 6 surfaces of which are covered with silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs). We have developed a prototype detector with 3D isotropic 1 mm resolution. On the other hand, when the X’tal cubes are arranged to form a PET scanner, insensitive inter-detector gaps made by the SiPM arrays should not be too wide, or, better yet, they should be removed. Reduction of the number of SiPMs will also be reflected in the production costs. Therefore, reducing the number of faces to be connected to the SiPMs has become our top priority. In this study, we evaluated the effect of reducing the number of SiPMs on the positioning accuracy through numerical simulations. Simulations were performed with the X’tal cube, which was composed of a 6 × 6 × 6 array of Lu_2x Gd_2(1?x)SiO₅:Ce crystal elements with dimensions of (3.0 mm)³. Each surface of the crystal block was covered with a 4 × 4 array of SiPMs, each of which had a (3.0 mm)² active area. For material between crystal elements, we compared two: optical glue and an air gap. The air gap showed a better crystal identification performance than did the optical glue, although a good crystal identification performance was obtained even with optical glue for the 6-face photodetection. In conclusion, the number of photodetection faces could be reduced to two when the gap material was air.     

Efficient one-pair experimental system for spatial resolution demonstration of prototype PET detectors

In the development of depth-of-interaction (DOI)-positron emission tomography (PET) detectors, one of the important steps toward their practical use is an evaluation of their imaging performance, such as the spatial resolution as measured by use of a point source and a one-pair experimental system which simulates actual PET geometries. The DOI-PET detectors have a broad field of view providing good imaging performance compared with conventional detectors. Therefore, evaluation including the region from the center to the periphery close to the detector ring is required in an effort to show their advanced performance regarding uniform spatial resolution. In this study, we aimed to develop and evaluate an efficient one-pair experimental system for demonstration of the DOI-PET detector performance. For this purpose, we propose a one-pair experimental system that can simulate an arbitrary ring diameter and acquire projection data efficiently by skipping unnecessary combinations according to the position of the point source. As a result, the proposed system and our measuring scheme could significantly reduce the total measurement time, especially for a large ring size such as that used in brain PET scanners and whole-body PET scanners. We used the system to evaluate the X’tal cube PET detector with a 2-mm cubic crystal array arranged in simulated PET geometries with ring diameters of 8.2 and 14.6 cm for 12 and 18 detector blocks, respectively. The results showed that a uniform spatial resolution was achieved even in the peripheral region, and measurements were obtained semi-automatically in a short time.     

Design and study of a coplanar grid array CdZnTe detector for improved spatial resolution

Coplanar grid (CPG) CdZnTe detectors have been used as gamma-ray spectrometers for years. Comparing with pixelated CdZnTe detectors, CPG CdZnTe detectors have either no or poor spatial resolution, which directly limits its use in imaging applications. To address the issue, a 2×2 CPG array CdZnTe detector with dimensions of 7×7×5 mm³ was fabricated. Each of the CPG pairs in the detector was moderately shrunk in size and precisely designed to improve the spatial resolution while maintaining good energy resolution, considering the charge loss at the surface between the strips of each CPG pairs. Preliminary measurements were demonstrated at an energy resolution of 2.7–3.9% for the four CPG pairs using 662 keV gamma rays and with a spatial resolution of 3.3 mm, which is the best spatial resolution ever achieved for CPG CdZnTe detectors. The results reveal that the CPG CdZnTe detector can also be applied to imaging applications at a substantially higher spatial resolution.     

Performance evaluation of a depth-of-interaction detector by use of position-sensitive PMT with a super-bialkali photocathode

Our purpose in this work was to evaluate the performance of a 4-layer depth-of-interaction (DOI) detector composed of GSO crystals by use of a position-sensitive photomultiplier tube (PMT) with a super-bialkali photocathode (SBA) by comparing it with a standard bialkali photocathode (BA) regarding the ability to identify the scintillating crystals, energy resolution, and timing resolution. The 4-layer DOI detector was composed of a 16 × 16 array of 2.9 × 2.9 × 7.5 mm³ GSO crystals for each layer and an 8 × 8 multi-anode array type position-sensitive PMT. The DOI was achieved by a reflector control method, and the Anger method was used for calculating interacting points. The energy resolution in full width at half-maximum (FWHM) at 511 keV energy for the top layer (the farthest from the PMT) was improved and was 12.0 % for the SBA compared with the energy resolution of 12.7 % for the BA. As indicators of crystal identification ability, the peak-to-valley ratio and distance-to-width ratio were calculated; the latter was defined as the average of the distance between peaks per the average of the peak width. For both metrics, improvement of several percent was obtained; for example, the peak-to-valley ratio was increased from 1.78 (BA) to 1.86 (SBA), and the distance-to-width ratio was increased from 1.47 (BA) to 1.57 (SBA). The timing resolution (FWHM) in the bottom layer was improved slightly and was 2.4 ns (SBA) compared with 2.5 ns (BA). Better performance of the DOI detector is expected by use of a super bialkali photocathode.     

Performance evaluation of the GE healthcare eXplore VISTA dual-ring small-animal PET scanner.

We evaluated the performance characteristics of the eXplore VISTA dual-ring small-animal PET scanner, a stationary, ring-type, depth-of-interaction (DOI) correcting system designed to simultaneously maximize sensitivity, resolution, and resolution uniformity over a field of view sufficient to image rodent-sized animals. METHODS: We measured the intrinsic spatial resolution response of the VISTA detector modules, spatial and volume resolution throughout a representative portion of the field of view, and imaged several common resolution phantoms to provide a qualitative picture of resolution performance. We obtained an axial sensitivity profile and measured central point source sensitivity, scatter fractions and noise equivalent count (NEC) rates for rat- and mouse-sized objects using different energy windows, and count rate linearity. In addition, we measured the energy and timing resolution of both of the crystal layers (cerium-doped gadolinium orthosilicate and cerium-doped lutetium-yttrium orthosilicate) that give VISTA machines a DOI compensation capability. We examined the effectiveness of this DOI compensation by comparing spatial resolution measurements with and without the DOI correction enabled. Finally, several animal studies were included to illustrate system performance in the field. RESULTS: Spatial and volume resolutions averaged approximately 1.4 mm and 2.9 mm(3), respectively (with 3-dimensional Fourier rebinning and 2-dimensional filtered backprojection image reconstructions and an energy window of 250-700 keV), along the central axis of the scanner, and the spatial resolution was better than 1.7 mm and 2.1 mm at 1 and 2 cm off the central axis, respectively. Central point source sensitivity measured approximately 4% with peak NEC rates of 126.8 kcps at 455 kBq/mL and 77.1 kcps at 141 kBq/mL for mouse- and rat-sized uniform, cylindric phantoms, respectively. The radial spatial resolution at 2.8 cm off axis with DOI compensation was 2.5 mm but degraded (by 56%) to 3.9 mm without DOI compensation (as would be the case with a geometrically identical scanner without DOI correction capability). CONCLUSION: These results indicate that the VISTA small-animal PET scanner is well suited to imaging rodent-sized animals. The combination of high spatial resolution, resolution uniformity, sensitivity, and count rate performance, made possible in part by the novel use of phoswich detector modules, confers significant technical advantages over machines with similar geometry but without DOI correction capability.     

Preliminary study on potential of the jPET-D4 human brain scanner for small animal imaging

Objective  One trend in positron emission tomography (PET) instrumentation over the last decade has been the development of scanners dedicated to small animals such as rats and mice. Thicker crystals, which are necessary to obtain higher sensitivity, result in degraded spatial resolution in the peripheral field-of-view (FOV) owing to the parallax error. On the other hand, we are developing the jPET-D4, which is a dedicated human brain PET scanner that has a capability for depth-of-interaction (DOI) measurement. Although its crystal width is about twice that of commercially available small animal PET scanners, we expect the jPET-D4 to have a potential for small animal imaging by making full use of the DOI information. In this article, we investigate the jPET-D4’s potential for small animal imaging by comparing it with the microPET Focus220, a state-of-the-art PET scanner dedicated to small animals. Methods  The jPET-D4 uses four-layered GSO crystals measuring 2.9 mm × 2.9 mm × 7.5 mm, whereas the microPET Focus220 uses a single layer of LSO crystals measuring 1.5 mm × 1.5 mm × 10.0 mm. First, the absolute sensitivity, counting rate performance and spatial resolution of both scanners were measured. Next a small hot-rod phantom was used to compare their imaging performance. Finally, a rat model with breast tumors was imaged using the jPET-D4. Results  Thanks to the thicker crystals and the longer axial FOV, the jPET-D4 had more than four times higher sensitivity than the microPET Focus220. The noise equivalent counting-rate performance of the jPETD4 reached 1,024 kcps for a rat-size phantom, whereas that of the microPET Focus220 reached only 165 kcps. At the center of the FOV, the resolution was 1.7 mm for the microPET Focus220, whereas it was 3.2 mm for the jPET-D4. On the other hand, the difference of resolution became smaller at the off-center position because the radial resolution degraded faster for the microPET Focus220. The results of phantom imaging showed that the jPET-D4 was comparable to the microPET Focus220 at the off-center position even as the microPET Focus220 outperformed the jPET-D4 except for the peripheral FOV. Conclusions  The jPET-D4 human brain PET scanner, which was designed to achieve not only high resolution but also high sensitivity by measuring DOI information, was proven to have a potential for small animal imaging.     

The influence of photon depth of interaction and non-collinear spread of annihilation photons on PET image spatial resolution

Purpose The quality of PET imaging is impaired by parallax errors. These errors produce misalignment between the projected location of the true origin of the annihilation event and the line of response determined by the coincidence detection system. Parallax errors are due to the varying depths of photon interaction (DOI) within the scintillator and the non-collinear (NC) emission of the annihilation photons. The aim of this work was to address the problems associated with the DOI and the NC spread of annihilation photons and to develop a quantitative model to assess their impact on image spatial resolution losses for various commonly used scintillators and PET geometries.Methods A theoretical model based on Monte Carlo simulations was developed to assess the relative influence of DOI and the NC spread of annihilation photons on PET spatial resolution for various scintillator materials (BGO, LSO, LuAP, GSO, NaI) and PET geometries.Results The results demonstrate good agreement between simulated, experimental and published overall spatial resolution for some commercial systems, with maximum differences around 1 mm in both 2D and 3D mode. The DOI introduces an impairment of non-stationary spatial resolution along the radial direction, which can be very severe at peripheral positions. As an example, the radial spatial resolution loss due to DOI increased from 1.3 mm at the centre to 6.7 mm at 20 cm from the centre of a BGO camera with a 412-mm radius in 2D mode. Including the NC, the corresponding losses were 3.0 mm at the centre and 7.3 mm 20 cm from the centre.Conclusion Without a DOI detection technique, it seems difficult to improve PET spatial resolution and increase sensitivity by reducing the detector ring radius or by extending the detector in the axial direction. Much effort is expended on the design and configuration of smaller detector elements but more effort should be devoted to the DOI complexity.     

Performance evaluation of microPET: a high-resolution lutetium oxyorthosilicate PET scanner for animal imaging.

A new dedicated PET scanner, microPET, was designed and developed at the University of California, Los Angeles, for imaging small laboratory animals. The goal was to provide a compact system with superior spatial resolution at a fraction of the cost of a clinical PET scanner. METHODS: The system uses fiberoptic readout of individually cut lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) crystals to achieve high spatial resolution. Each microPET detector consists of an 8 x 8 array of 2 x 2 x 10-mm LSO scintillation crystals that are coupled to a 64-channel photomultiplier tube by optical fibers. The tomograph consists of 30 detectors in a continuous ring with a 17.2-cm diameter and fields of view (FOVs) of 11.25 cm in the transaxial direction and 1.8 cm in the axial direction. The system has eight crystal rings and no interplane septa. It operates exclusively in the three-dimensional mode and has an electronically controlled bed that is capable of wobbling with a radius of 300 microm. We describe the performance of the tomograph in terms of its spatial, energy and timing resolution, as well as its sensitivity and counting-rate performance. We also illustrate its overall imaging performance with phantom and animal studies that demonstrate the potential applications of this device to biomedical research. RESULTS: Images reconstructed with three-dimensional filtered backprojection show a spatial resolution of 1.8 mm at the center of the FOV (CFOV), which remains <2.5 mm for the central 5 cm of the transaxial FOV. The resulting volumetric resolution of the system is <8 microL. The absolute system sensitivity measured with a 0.74 MBq (20 microCi) 68Ge point source at the CFOV is 5.62 Hz/kBq. The maximum noise equivalent counting rate obtained with a 6.4-cm diameter cylinder spanning the central 56% of the FOV is 10 kcps, whereas the scatter fraction is 37% at the CFOV for an energy window of 250-650 keV and the same diameter cylinder. CONCLUSION: This is the first PET scanner to use the new scintillator LSO and uses a novel detector design to achieve high volumetric spatial resolution. The combination of imaging characteristics of this prototype system (resolution, sensitivity, counting-rate performance and scatter fraction) opens up new possibilities in the study of animal models with PET.     

Simultaneous acquisition of multislice PET and MR images: initial results with a MR-compatible PET scanner.

PET and MRI are powerful imaging techniques that are largely complementary in the information they provide. We have designed and built a MR-compatible PET scanner based on avalanche photodiode technology that allows simultaneous acquisition of PET and MR images in small animals. METHODS: The PET scanner insert uses magnetic field-insensitive, position-sensitive avalanche photodiode (PSAPD) detectors coupled, via short lengths of optical fibers, to arrays of lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) scintillator crystals. The optical fibers are used to minimize electromagnetic interference between the radiofrequency and gradient coils and the PET detector system. The PET detector module components and the complete PET insert assembly are described. PET data were acquired with and without MR sequences running, and detector flood histograms were compared with the ones generated from the data acquired outside the magnet. A uniform MR phantom was also imaged to assess the effect of the PET detector on the MR data acquisition. Simultaneous PET and MRI studies of a mouse were performed ex vivo. RESULTS: PSAPDs can be successfully used to read out large numbers of scintillator crystals coupled through optical fibers with acceptable performance in terms of energy and timing resolution and crystal identification. The PSAPD-LSO detector performs well in the 7-T magnet, and no visible artifacts are detected in the MR images using standard pulse sequences. CONCLUSION: The first images from the complete system have been successfully acquired and reconstructed, demonstrating that simultaneous PET and MRI studies are feasible and opening up interesting possibilities for dual-modality molecular imaging studies.     

An animal PET scanner using flat-panel position-sensitive PMTs

Objective

To design, build, and evaluate an animal PET scanner, which can be used with non-human primates under conscious condition, incorporating flat-panel position-sensitive photomultiplier tubes (PS-PMTs).

Methods

The system contains 30 detector modules, each having two PS-PMTs and 16 × 18 lutetium–yttrium oxyortho-silicate scintillation crystal arrays. The system has 17,280 crystals (480 per ring) arranged in 36 rings, with a diameter of 508 mm and axial extent of 108 mm. The gantry tilt mechanism enables PET studies to be performed on a monkey in the sitting position. Data can be acquired in either the 2D or 3D mode, with the slice collimators being retracted in the 3D mode.

Results

At the center of the field-of-view, radial resolution is 2.7 mm full width at half maximum (FWHM) and tangential resolution is 2.4 mm FWHM, while axial resolution is 2.5 mm FWHM for direct slices and 2.7 mm FWHM for cross slices. Scatter fraction, count rate capability, and sensitivity were evaluated using a cylindrical phantom 10 cm in diameter. The noise equivalent count rate in the 3D mode is equivalent to that in the 2D mode at a three times higher radioactivity level. Total system sensitivity is 1.3 kcps/(kBq/mL) in 2D mode and 7.4 kcps/(kBq/mL) in the 3D mode. Animal studies with a monkey were performed to evaluate the imaging capabilities of the scanner.

Conclusion

The new PET scanner will be a useful research tool with non-human primates for pre-clinical drug development.     

A novel PET scanner with semiconductor detectors may improve diagnostic accuracy in the metastatic survey of head and neck cancer patients

Objectives

Our research group developed new PET scanner with semiconductor detectors for high spatial resolution with low scatter noise. On head and neck cancer (HNC) surgery, FDG-PET may often provide false-positive findings in cervical node involvements. Accordingly, we assessed diagnostic accuracy using this new scanner in the HNC patients as compared with the conventional lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) PET.

Methods

We prospectively studied FDG imaging in 35 HNC patients by both semiconductor PET and LSO-PET. At 60 min after ¹⁸F-FDG injection, two PET scans were obtained using both scanners consecutively and in random order. Two nuclear medicine specialists scored FDG abnormalities using 5 point scale system for receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis.

Results

63 suspected of metastatic or recurrent lesions were evaluated and correlated by the final confirmation by pathological findings or clinical courses (malignant 26/benign 37). Semiconductor PET showed sensitivity of 92.3 % (24/26), specificity of 51.4 % (19/37), and accuracy of 68.2 % (43/63), while LSO-PET showed sensitivity of 84.6 % (22/26), specificity of 16.2 %(6/37), and accuracy of 44.4 % (28/63), respectively. Especially, semiconductor PET accurately diagnosed as true negative in the 13 of 14 lesions only detected by LSO-PET. ROC analyses revealed the diagnostic superiority of semiconductor PET from location of- and area under curve particularly in the study of small (≤10 mm) lesions.

Conclusion

A new novel semiconductor PET scanner can increase diagnostic accuracy with reduction in false positive findings in the HNC patients mainly due to higher spatial resolution and lower noise than the LSO-PET. This new technology can lead to more accurate diagnosis and the more optimal therapeutic tactics in head and neck surgery.     

Performance of the new generation of whole-body PET/CT scanners: Discovery STE and Discovery VCT

Purpose The new GE Discovery STE and Discovery VCT respectively combine 16-slice and 64-slice CT with PET. The PET scanner has a new BGO detector block of 8×6 matrix (6.3×4.7×30 mm³). The aim of this study was to test the performance of the new scanner. Methods The PET performance evaluation was done using NEMA methodology. Owing to improved front-end electronics, the system was tested with different energy window and coincidence timing settings. Results Transaxial resolution FWHM for 2D(3D) mode at 1 cm offset from the centre of the field of view (R1) was 4.87 mm (5.12 mm) and at 10 cm off centre (R10) radially 5.70 mm (5.89 mm) and tangentially 5.84 mm (5.47 mm). The axial resolutions were 4.4 mm (5.18 mm) (R1) and 5.99 mm (5.86 mm) (R10). The sensitivities were 2.3 cps/kBq (8.8 cps/kBq) (R0, centre of field of view) and 2.3 cps/kBq (8.9 cps/kBq) (R10). The system scatter fraction was 21.4% in 2D at an energy of 375 keV (33.9% in 3D mode at a higher energy of 425 keV). Peak noise equivalent count rates (k=1) were 84.9 kcps at 43.9 kBq/ml (2D) and 67.6 kcps at 12.1 kBq/ml (3D). In image quality measurement the hot sphere to background contrast with 10- to 22-mm diameter spheres varied from 14% to 68%, being slightly better in 3D than in 2D mode. Cold sphere contrast was 67% in 2D and 59% in 3D mode. Conclusion GE’s new STE and VCT PET/CT systems have improved spatial resolution without loss in sensitivity. When compared with the LYSO crystal-based GE Discovery RX, the resolution and scatter fraction are comparable, the count rate capability is lower but the sensitivity is higher.     

Monte Carlo simulation of sensitivity and NECR of an entire-body PET scanner

The current positron emission tomography (PET) design is aimed toward establishing an entire-body PET scanner. An entire-body PET scanner is a scanner whose axial field of view (FOV) covers the whole body of a patient, whereas whole-body PET scanner can be of any axial FOV length, but was designed for a whole-body scan. Despite its high production cost, an entire-body depth-of-interaction PET scanner offers many benefits, such as shorter and dynamic PET time acquisition, as well as higher sensitivity and count rate performance. This PET scanner may be cost-effective for clinical PET scanners with high scan throughput. In this work, we evaluated the sensitivity and count rate performance of a 2-m-long PET scanner with conventional data acquisition (DAQ) architecture, using Monte Carlo simulation, and we evaluated two ring diameters (60 and 80 cm) to reduce the scanner cost. From simulation of scanning with a 2-m axial FOV, the sensitivity for a 2-m-long PET scanner of 60 and 80-cm diameter is around 80 and 68 times higher, respectively, than that of the conventional PET scanner. In addition, for the 2-m-long PET scanner with 60-cm diameter, the peak noise equivalent count rate (NECR) was 843 kcps at 125 MBq, whereas the peak for the 80-cm diameter was 989 kcps at 200 MBq. This shows gains of 15.3 and 17.95, respectively, in comparison with that of the conventional PET scanner. The 2-m-long PET scanner with 60-cm ring diameter could not only reduce the number of detectors by 21 %, but also had a 17 % higher sensitivity compared to that with an 80-cm ring diameter. On the other hand, despite the higher sensitivity, the NECR of the 60-cm ring diameter was smaller than that of the 80-cm ring diameter. This results from the single data loss due to dead time, whereas grouping of axially stacked detectors was used in the conventional DAQ architecture. Parallelization of the DAQ architecture is therefore important for the 2-m-long PET scanner to achieve its optimal performance.     

Long-term performance evaluation of positron emission tomography: analysis and proposal of a maintenance protocol for long-term utilization

Objective

Positron emission tomography (PET) scanners require periodic monitoring in order to maintain scanner performance. The aim of the present study was to examine the deterioration of PET scanner performance caused by aging.

Methods

We retrospectively examined PET scanner performance alterations in terms of sensitivity, spatial resolution, false coincidences due to scatter and random coincidences based on 13 years of follow-up data, including data when the PET scanner underwent an overhaul at the 10th year after installation. Sensitivity and scatter fraction were calculated by using cross calibration factor (CCF) measurement data, which are collected routinely. Efficacy of the examining the sensitivity and scatter was confirmed by NEMA measurements. Trans-axial resolution was measured as full width at half-maximum (FWHM) and full width at tenth-maximum (FWTM) at 0–20 cm offset from the field of view (FOV) center at the time of installation, 8 years after installation, and immediately after the overhaul. Random coincidence rate fraction was measured in a wide range of count rates before and after the overhaul.

Results and discussion

The results indicated that the total reduction of sensitivity during the first 10 years was 41% of the initial value in terms of NEMA measurement, and that the annual reduction of sensitivity progressed at a rate of 4.7% per year in terms of CCF measurement data. The changes in sensitivity can be calculated using CCF measurement data. Regarding the spatial resolution, mean FWHM and FWTM values were increased by 1.7 and 3.6%, respectively, in 8 years after installation. The relative scatter fraction was significantly increased compared with that before the overhaul. The random fraction decreased by 10–15% after the overhaul within a certain range of random count rates (1–120 kcps). In the case of our scanner, the parameter that displayed the largest change was the sensitivity, and this change was thought to be caused by the reduction of photomultiplier tube (PMT) gain, although the changes in PMT gain can cause various types of performance deterioration, as investigated in this study.

Conclusion

We observed that the sensitivity of our PET scanner generally deteriorated due to aging. Sensitivity monitoring using CCF measurements can be an easy and useful method for monitoring and maintaining the performance of PET scanners against aging. Since the data were obtained from a single scanner, the authors would encourage the initiation of a follow-up study involving various scanners.     

Ultrahochfeld-MR-Tomographie in der Kardiologie

Clinical/methodical issue

This involves high spatial resolution cardiac imaging with ultrahigh magnetic fields (7 T) and clinically acceptable image quality.

Standard radiological methods

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at a field strength of 1.5 T using a spatial resolution of (2?×?2?×?6–8) mm³.

Methodical innovations

Cardiac MRI at ultrahigh field strength makes use of multitransmit/receive radiofrequency (RF) technology and development of novel technology that utilizes the traits of ultrahigh field MRI.

Performance

Enhanced spatial resolution which is superior by a factor of 6–10 to what can be achieved by current clinical cardiac MRI. The relative spatial resolution (pixels per anatomical structure) comes close to what can be accomplished by current cardiac MRI in small rodents.

Achievements

Feasibility studies demonstrate the gain in spatial resolution at 7.0 T due to the sensitivity advantage inherent to ultrahigh magnetic fields.

Practical recommendations

Please stay tuned and please put further weight behind the solution of the remaining technical problems of cardiac MRI at 7.0 T.     

Quantitative assessment of crystal material and size on the performance of rotating dual head small animal PET scanners using Monte Carlo modeling

In this work, among different proposed designs we have studied dual-head coincidence detectors (DHC) with pixelated crystals in order to optimize the design of detector systems of small animal PET scanners. Monte Carlo simulations and different detector components and materials, under different imaging conditions and geant 4 application for tomographic emission (GATE) were used for all simulations. Crystal length and inter material space on system performance were studied modeling several pixel sizes, ranging from 0.5 x 0.5mm2 to 3.0 x 3.0mm2 by increment of 0.5mm and using epoxy intermaterial with pitch of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3mm. Three types of scintillator crystals:bismuth germinate orthosilicate, cerium-doped lutetium orthosilicate and gadolinium orthosilicate were simulated with thicknesses of 10mm and 15 mm. For all measurements a point source with the activity of 1MBq was placed at the center of field of view. The above simulation revealed that by increasing pixel size and crystal length in scintillator material of a pixelated array, sensitivity can be raised from 1% to 7%. However, spatial resolution becomes worse when pixel size increases from 0.6mm to 2.6mm. In addition, photons mispositioned events decrease from 76%to 45%. Crystal length decrease, significantly reduces the percentage of mispositioned events from 89% to 59%. Moreover increase in crystal length from 10mm to 15 mm changes sensitivity from 2% to 6% and spatial resolution from 0.6mm to 3.5mm. In conclusion, it was shown that pixel size 2mm with 10mm crystal thickness can provide the best dimensions in order to optimize system performance. These results confirmed the value of GATE Monte Carlo code, as being a useful tool for optimizing nuclear medicine imaging systems performance, for small animal PET studies.     

Irradiation of 4″×4″ NaI(Tl) detector by the 14 MeV neutrons

Within the EURopean Illicit TRAfficking Countermeasures Kit (EURITRACK) project, a new Tagged Neutron Inspection System (TNIS) has been developed and installed in the Port of Rijeka in Croatia. The system was based on the examination of sea containers with the 14 MeV neutron beam. During the operation the characteristic gamma rays were produced and measured by several 5″×5″×10″ NaI(Tl) detectors. During this procedure some of the detectors were exposed to an intensive neutron beam radiation. It was necessary to check for possible radiation damage of the NaI(Tl) scintillator during the gamma detector selection phase of the project.The 4″×4″ NaI(Tl) detector was exposed to 14 MeV neutrons for 20 h. From the presented results on energy resolution and activation measurements it could be concluded that there are no significant differences in energy resolution before and after the irradiation by 4.7×10¹¹ of 14 MeV neutrons. The only problem could be the high level of medium and long term induced activity in the energy region below 2 MeV.