Mental Health: The Search for a Definition

Various attempts to define the concept of “mental health” are examined. Value judgments permeate much mental health literature. Their use militates against obtaining an objective definition, capable of universal application. The acceptance of a definition including a value judgment implies taking an attitude toward a particular society and its social ideals.

Present limits of competence only allow us to describe “mental health” conceptually. Such “untechnical” proposals are liable to be confused with “technical” (“scientific”) propositions. Multiple criteria are likely to be helpful in improving our concept of “mental health”.

The intrusion of morals into the world of health is discussed as part of the contemporary intellectual dilemma of determined human behaviour versus human responsibility and the reality of moral values.

It is suggested that “mental health” might consist simply of an individual's possession of insight into his own personality, combined with an honest recognition and acceptance of his condition.

     

Problems of Community Psychiatry

An analysis of existing psychiatric facilities in the community reveals their heterogeneity and fragmentation. Parallel, overlapping and non-communicating, they deal with treatment in a piecemeal fashion and with prevention only by default. Divorce between the different therapeutic phases of what is often the same illness violates any continuity of care. The provincial mental hospital, which arose in part out of social pressure to isolate the “mad” patient, finds itself, often enough, isolated in turn from the community it serves.

Greater integration of available treatment resources for the psychiatric patient would serve both his interest and the general concepts of preventive and rehabilitative medicine. An understanding of how this may be achieved may engender social and professional impetus toward the accomplishment. The general hospital is a logical coordinating focus for these facilities and when it has adopted this role this might lead to a greater acceptance of emotional illness by both patients and doctors.

     

Medical Care of the Alcoholic Patient

Alcoholism is an illness that constitutes a major health problem at all levels of society. The physician should accept his responsibility to prevent it and to care for the alcoholic. If he knows that one of his patients is drinking immoderately, he should warn him of the outlook. A patient's acquired dependence on alcohol may be overt, or revealed only on examination for organic disease or emotional disturbance. The diagnosis may be accepted reluctantly, or denied despite positive evidence, but the patient should be persuaded to give up drinking. He may require psychiatric help or advice from a social worker. He may be so ill as to require treatment in hospital, and hospitals must recognize the urgency of such admissions. Discharge from hospital does not end treatment, for alcoholism is a chronic disease, requiring long-term planning, persistent follow-up and enduring sympathy by the physician, who must always be as available to his alcoholic patient as he is to his patient with diabetes, epilepsy or cardiac disease.     

A New Look at Bimedial Prefrontal Leukotomy

Forty-four selected patients with “hard core” functional psychiatric illness were treated by bimedial prefrontal leukotomy, in which only the medial half of the prefrontal white matter of both frontal lobes was divided. This operation differs from the conventional or “standard” leukotomy which divides the entire prefrontal white matter. There were six patients with personality disorders, 25 psychoneurotics, 12 schizophrenics, and one with involutional melancholia. Forty-two of the 44 patients had thorough psychiatric follow-up, ranging from one to seven years postoperatively. They were assessed clinically and also on a point-rating scale of assessment.

Seventy-six per cent of these patients had excellent or satisfactory outcomes. The most striking benefit was decrease in anxiety and tension.

Modified leukotomy is a safe and effective method of reducing the symptoms of excessive tension, anxiety, fear or depression in patients with a variety of illnesses, including anxiety neurosis, phobic psychoneurosis, obsessional neurosis, neurotic or psychotic depressive reactions and schizophrenia. The operation should be considered in such neurotic, personality and psychotic illnesses when medical treatment has failed.

     

Psychological Aspects of Headache

Headache is considered as a non-specific syndrome illustrating the concept of pain as an emotion. Viewed in this way, its meaning looms larger than its site.

Pain indicates dis-ease of the patient, sometimes with his body, but more often with his life. No pain is “imaginary”, nor can some pain be assigned to physiological and some to psychological pathways. Such a decision is often merely a judgmental one.

Just as the “brain” cannot easily be separated from the “mind”, so to believe that some pain is “physical” and some “emotional” is a distortion. All painful syndromes are mixed and the problem is to decipher the meaning of the pain. Only rarely will headache respond to physical measures alone.

     

Doctor-patient relationship: Islamic perspective

The doctor-patient relationship is an intricate concept in which patients voluntarily approach a doctor and become part of a contract by which they tend to abide by doctor’s instructions. Over recent decades, this relationship has changed dramatically due to privatization and commercialization of the health sector. A review of the relevant literature in the database of MEDLINE published in English between 1966 and August 2015 was performed with the following keywords: doctor-patient relationship, physician-patient relationship, ethics, and Islam. The Muslim doctor should be familiar with the Islamic teachings on the daily issues faced in his/her practice and the relationship with his/her patients.The basis of Islam is to believe that there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad (PBUH) is the messenger of Allah. The life of a human being on earth is just a preparation or examination for the eternal life after death. Good is from Allah in the Holy Quran and demonstrated by Prophet (PBUH), and bad is the influence of Satan (who again is created by Allah). The good or bad consequence of eternal life depends on how much a Muslim believes in and obey Allah. Medical practice is considered a sacred duty in Islam, and the physician is rewarded by God for his good work. Islamic scholars have agreed that the study and practice of medicine is an obligation that falls upon Muslims to have sufficient numbers of followers to practice (Fard Kifayah). Among a doctor and patient, both can be Muslim, or either can be Muslim. The Islamic perspective of the doctor-patient relationship is applicable to these groups; but possibley not the non-Muslim doctor- patient groups. A Muslim is first a Muslim then he/she is a doctor/patient. Therefore, those who claim themselves as Muslim should obey Allah, hence, should obey what Allah has said or Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) has demonstrated regarding the doctor-patient relationship. Obviously, like other Islamic issues, there should be the scope of “Ijma” (Consensus of Islamic Scholars) and “Qiyas,” (analogy) when any new issue arises. Building a fruitful doctor-patient relationship is a vital part of successful medical care, and one of the most complicated professional responsibilities of physicians. Despite worldwide emphasis on the distinguished responsibility of physicians, teaching the art of physician-patient relationship has not yet been incorporated, into the curriculum of many medical schools.1 Every medical practitioner should possess an adequate degree of knowledge and skills and should exercise a reasonable degree of patient’s care. Doctors are expected to act according to acceptable medical opinion and current medical knowledge.2 Over the years, the relationship between doctors and patients has evolved from a largely paternalistic model to a more interactive relationship. The principles of autonomy, beneficence, informed consent, patient’s access to medical information, and medico-legal concerns all now influence the doctor-patient relationship.3 The UK General Medical Council published “What to expect from your doctor: a guide for patients”. The guide is a provisional step trying to help patients getting the best outcome from the interaction with their physicians.4 The importance of the intimate personal relationship between the doctor and the patient cannot be over emphasized, as both the diagnosis and treatment are directly dependent on it, and the failure of a young physician to establish this relationship is attributed to his inefficiency in the care of his patients.5 The only and sole interest the doctor should consider, is the best interest of his/her patient. Dr. Francis Peabody ended his speech to medical students of Harvard University on 21 October 1926 by saying: “Time, compassion, and understanding should be generously dispensed, but the reward is to be expected in that personal binding, which creates the greatest satisfaction of the practice of medicine. One of the greatest qualities of a physician is his interest in humanity, as the secret of care of the patient lies in the caring for his patient”.5

Doctors manners

During the history-taking period, the doctor should not only obtain essential clinical information, but must use this opportunity to understand his patient as a human being. This is also when the patient begins to identify his/her doctor as a person and decide whether he is a caring and kind person or not!6 Globally, patients expect a certain kind of treatment from their doctors because of the nature and goals of the medical profession. The physician is expected to be kind, humble, compassionate, honest, trustworthy, and respecting confidentiality (Figure 1). He must have the interest of the patient at heart. He should avoid wrongdoing, not abusing his/her status for monetary gain, and not misleading his/her patient because God does not love the liars and wrongdoers.7 The Prophet (PBUH) said: “Those who have a perfect faith are those who have the best character”.8Open in a separate windowFigure 1The doctor is expected to be kind, humble, and compassionate.Islamic ethics instructs human beings not only to be virtuous, but also to contribute to the moral health of society. The Qur’an says:“You enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong”.9 The character of the Muslim is exemplified in a verse of the Holy Qur’an saying:(“Indeed, Allah orders justice and good conduct” … and “forbids immorality and bad conduct and oppression”).10 The characteristic features of a virtuous physician are firmly rooted in the Qur’an and the Sunna. Consequently, the Muslim physician, guided by these 2 primary sources of Islamic law, should possess the essential manners of a good physician, and this will lead to a healthy doctor-patient relationship.7 The major distinction of Islamic medical ethics in relation to principalism-based medical ethics is that the former gives a religious basis to morality.11 Prophet Muhammad says; “The best of you is the one who is most beneficial to others”.12 “Hazrat Jaber (Radiallhu tala anhu)”, a companion of the Prophet said: “We were with the Prophet when a scorpion bit one of us. A companion asked, “O Prophet, may I do Ruqyah (recitation of Qur’an and supplications) to him.” The Prophet said: “Whoever can do anything beneficial to one of his brothers, he should just do it”.13During the time of the Prophet (PBUH) a man was injured and the blood was congested in the wound. The man then called 2 doctors from Bani Amir to examine him. The man then claimed that the Messenger of Allah asked them, ‘Who is the best doctor among you?’ They Asked: Is there preferability among physicians, O Messenger of Allah? He said, ‘The One, Who has sent down the disease also sent down the cure. Those who Know it will know it, and those who do not know it will not know it.” This Hadith indicates that Muslims should seek the best authority in each and every matter and field because such expertise will ensure that the job is carried out with excellence.14Islam has enjoined 3 important points on which the doctor establishes a sound and healthy relationship with his/her patients: The first of these is justice among his patients. The second point enjoined is “Ihsan”, which has no equivalent in English. It means to be good, tolerant, sympathetic, forgiving, polite, cooperative, and so forth. The third point, which has been enjoined, is good treatment of a patient’s relatives, which is a specific form of Ihsan.11Prominent physicians of the Islamic civilization involved themselves with medical ethics; among these were Al-Ruhawi, and Al-Razi. They wrote the earliest and most meticulous books on medical ethics over a thousand years ago. Al-Razi,15 in his book “Akhlaq Al-Tabib”, the physician duties to the patients. The first of which is to treat the patients kindly, not to be rude or aggressive, but should be soft-spoken, compassionate, and behave modestly. The physician should inspire the patients even those who have no hope for recovery. To Al-Razi, another duty of the physician to his patients is to treat the patients equally regardless of their wealth or social status. The aim of the physician should not be the money he will get after treatment, but the cure. Doctors should be even keener on treating the poor and needy than the rich and wealthy.15

Communication

Globally, a patient’s complaints of doctors’ communication skills are recorded at the top of the analyzed complaint lists.1 It is crucial to treat the patient, not only the disease. Modern technology makes the physician’s skills focused on the treatment of the disease with less emphasis on the patient himself. Consequently, the symptoms of the disease are temporarily alleviated, while the root of the problem is still present. Hippocrates made an invaluable remark saying “where there is love for human being, there is love for the art of healing”.16 It was reported that Avicenna used to tell his patient: Look!. You, I and disease are “3”. If you help me and stand beside me, we become “2”, and the disease will be left alone; then we will overcome it and compel your illness. But if you stand beside the disease, you will become “2” and I will be alone, then you will overcome me, and I will not be able to cure you.17A physician taking a history from his patient in a way similar to an interrogating lawyer, and paying little attention to his patient’s answers is doomed to be a poor clinician.6 Many doctors are reluctant to improve communication, which is one of the crucial elements of treatment. Despite the efforts of some medical universities to reform their medical curriculums and implement communication skills, it seems that many doctors do not appear to build effective relationships with their patients.1 Since the clinics became more crowded, with an increase in referrals to specialists, doctor-patient exposure decreases as visits became shorter, and patients are frequently exposed to different physicians. Unfortunately, patients are becoming more distant from their doctors. They have more access than ever to medical information. They are far more knowledgeable on pathology and modes of therapy, and often express their desire to participate in treatment decisions. We are going to see an amazing progress in technology shortly, and the practice of medicine will be very interesting, but very different from today.18

Communication with children’s parents

Most parental complaints of dissatisfaction are attributed to lack of communication or due to a cold, rough, or indifferent attitude, or behavior, of the doctor or any member of the treating team, and not due to lack of knowledge and skills or unsatisfactory treatment of the patient. The patients and parents should have the feeling of being treated with respect and dignity at all times.19 Physicians should be tactful and careful in deciding not only “what to tell the parents” but “how to tell” as well. Parents should be informed the condition of the child in a simple language without medical jargons. They should also be pragmatic and honest in telling them the true medical status of the child, while keeping the hope alive, which has great healing capacity.19

Patient’s satisfaction and trust

Improvement of patient’s satisfaction is a major target for hospitals and is often dictated by patients’ perception of the level of communication of the hospital team.20 When doctors communicate effectively with patients, they identify patients’ problems more accurately, and the patients are more satisfied.21 An American study22 of 500 difficult patients in general medicine revealed that only one patient out of 2 is leaving the doctor’s office satisfied with the care provided. This satisfaction increased to 63% when the same patients were asked about their feelings 3 months later. The most satisfied patients were those over the age of 60 who saw an improvement in their health.22 A relationship characterized by a high level of trust in the physician leads to an increase in adherence to treatment, improvement in follow-up, and reduction in unnecessary investigations, and requests for a second opinion. Consequently, the overall cost of healthcare will be significantly reduced.23 A greater number of problems may be solved during a consultation when patients have a deeper relationship with their doctors.24

The gender issue in the doctor-patient relationship

Modesty is an important issue for Muslim women, and many female patients may tune out what the doctor is saying, out of nervousness over having their bodies exposed. For a Muslim woman, it could be very stressful to expose her body in front of a male physician, or even to discuss with him sensitive issues related to her health. Consequently, some Muslim women may not reveal their health problems to a male physician or may not even seek medical care.25Patients typically prefer same-gender providers and may feel uncomfortable when alone with a physician of the opposite gender. If that’s unavoidable, leave the door or privacy curtain partly open (as long as your patient is dressed). It is quite common for the husband to ask to stay with his wife during a physical examination. Having a female nurse available for examinations may help a Muslim woman to feel more comfortable, and is mandatory in all countries in the world. Posting a sign stating, “Please knock on the door before entering.” may also be-helpful.

Informed consent

Informed consent is the cornerstone of the doctor-patient relationship, and is a recognized legal obligation for the medical profession. Physicians must obtain informed consent from the patients or their legal guardian, in case of minors or mentally deficient, before undertaking any medical or surgical procedure, providing a clear explanation of the planned procedure, intended benefits, potential risks, and complications.26 DelPozo and Fins27 note that informed consent addresses the individual rights of patients. However, Islamic law respects the privacy of person and family. They conclude that the Western way of obtaining informed consent in a patient from the Eastern culture may involve providing “too much information and may leave the patient feeling misinformed.” Giving too much information, at times, may raise suspicion that the physician might be withholding information or even concealing the truth.”27,28 To respect the autonomy of the patient, the doctor should have more knowledge of the cultural values and behaviors of his/her patient. For a Muslim patient, absolute autonomy is very rare; he/she will have a feeling of responsibility towards God, and live in social cohesion, in which the influence of relatives play a significant role.29 The patient-doctor relation is continuously changing, and informed consent will never prevent unfortunate outcomes, leading to serious questioning of doctor’s performance and the proper use of resources. Even if this reaches an exemplary level, it does not guarantee the patient’s satisfaction with the medical service provided, and avoid possible legal accusation.30

The role of family/companions in medical consultations

The family is the basic structural element of a stable Islamic society. Family members frequently accompany patients to the clinic or hospital, and medical decision-making usually involves the patient’s immediate family even when the patient is compos mentis. The family may deliver bad news gradually to the patient. Although a patient may choose to pay attention to the influence of family and friends, the ultimate decision to agree with the procedure, or surgery must be made by the patient. The role of the family should be affirmed and respected, but this recognition must be balanced with the priority of patient autonomy. All communication regarding the risks and benefits of medical procedure, or surgery must be understood by the patient. It is not acceptable to ask a surrogate for consent for a capable and conscious adult patient unless the patient chooses to permit it.31 Companions usually play a supportive role in the majority of consultations. They give emotional support, help in transport, and may express patients’ concerns.32 During the procedure or surgical operation, relatives often recite prayers or read the Quran, appealing for the cure of their loved ones.

Ethical issues in visual recording

Visual recording of patients is commonly used for clinical, research, legal, and academic purposes. It is frequently used in the specialties of plastic surgery, dermatology, wound care, maxillofacial surgery, and otolaryngology. Guidelines for biomedical recording have been issued by several health authorities, associations, and journals.33 Photographing patients may have an indirect effect on treatment, by aiding diagnosis; and written consent should be obtained from the patient or his/her legal representative before carrying out the procedure.33 The identity of the patient should always be concealed. In recent years, doctors have been investigated for uploading medical data that can identify patients onto public internet forums. Muslim jurists’ rulings on human recording vary from being permissible to bing discouraged, and forbidden. However, the ruling is ultimately dependent on the intended use of the images or recording, the way images were obtained, and the potential usage of the whole procedure. For images to be permissible, the procedure must not contradict Islamic law. Only the minimum necessary area should be photographed. Subjects’ rights and dignity must not be violated, and their religious and cultural background respected.33,34

Confidentiality

Breaching confidentiality can be acceptable or required by medical authorities, when failure to act can lead to physical harm, to either the patient or people in contact with that patient; such as the case of certain infectious diseases, where the doctor or researcher has a duty to protect the health of those who may be at risk.35 Certain circumstances demand a breach of patients’ confidentiality to protect other individuals or society as a whole. Breach of confidentiality under such conditions is justifiable in Islam. Examples include reporting, to the assigned authorities, probable criminal acts (such as domestic violence or child abuse), serious communicable diseases or circumstances, which pose a threat to others’ lives (such as an epileptic patient working as a driver), notification of births and deaths, medical errors, and drug side effects. If the patient agrees to disclose the complexity of his medical condition to the family, then there is no breaking of confidentiality. If a consort has an HIV infection, then the physician’s duty is to inform the other consort of the true diagnosis. The doctor should take the permission from the infected person, or ask him to tell his consort, in his presence, the true diagnosis.34In a fatwa issued by the International Islamic Fiqh Academy in 1993, jurists affirmed that a breach of confidentiality can be acceptable only if the harm of maintaining confidentiality overrides its benefits. The fatwa describes some situations in which breaching confidentiality is allowed, or mandatory.36 “Such cases are of 2 categories: a) Cases where a confidence must be broken on grounds of the rational of committing a lesser evil and obviating the greater one, and the rational of seeing to a public interest, which favor enduring individual harm so as to prevent public harm if needed. These include 2 sets: Those which involve protecting society against some prejudice, and those which involve protecting an individual against some prejudice. b) Cases where a confidence may be broken: 1) To ensure a public interest. 2) To prevent a public damage. In all such cases the objectives and priorities are set out by Shari’ah (Islamic law) regarding preserving the faith, human life, reason, descendants, and wealth”.37

Breaking bad news/disclosure

Breaking bad news, defined as “any information that seriously and adversely affects an individual’s view of his or her future,” is a nerve-racking moment in the relationship between doctors and their patients. It is very stressful for patients, especially if the clinician is inexperienced.38 Health care workers in Muslim communities are required to modify the Western-based recommendations to match the culture of their patients and their families.39 In all cultures and communities, the statement of Buckman40 firmly stands: “…if the breaking of bad news is badly done, patients and their families may never forgive us, but if it is done properly they will never forget us.”Full disclosure and patient’s autonomy are the focal point of medical ethics in the West. Consequently, Western medical practice advocates free and open communication with patients, to the point that they are fully aware of their disease and treatment. Nondisclosure of a cancer diagnosis is common practice in many Eastern communities. Consequently, families often approach oncologists with requests for nondisclosure. As a result, most doctors opt to break a cancer diagnosis to the family before informing the patient himself. Nondisclosure may carry high costs to the patient and family, who may receive less than optimal supportive and medical care. The patient may be deprived of the chance to finalize his affairs and say goodbye.41 For many Muslim patients, it is God who permits death, hence giving up hope is not welcome in religious teaching.In conclusion, the practice of medicine firmly relies on the relationship between the doctor and his/her patient. Consulting with a patient is a complicated skill that is gradually learned during medical training and perfected when one grows to take his/her role as a doctor. Medicine is not a business to be learned, but a profession to be satisfied with. Medical technology should not be allowed to dehumanize further medicine, and the declining image of the medical profession should be rectified. The caring doctor is the one who does not over-test or over-treat his/her patients and communicate with them properly. The success of the doctor-patient relationship is evident when doctors treat patients with respect and courtesy. Physicians are expected to possess scientific knowledge, technical skill, and a human touch and understanding. Physicians should be kind, decent and modest, well mannered, and insist on the treatment of poor and needy patients as much as law and regulations can permit. However, these regulations may hamper such good will. These are considered to be doctor’s essential duties to the patients and the society.Continuous education and model leadership are required to maintain the portrait in which doctors see their patients as people and not a disease. This will not only improve the relationship between physicians and patients, but often improve the clinical outcomes. All medical schools should initiate regular education programs in medical ethics, social, and behavioral sciences, and the art of communication for both undergraduate and postgraduate medical students. We also recommend developing a monitoring and evaluation system for doctors working in hospitals, clinics in public and private sectors to monitor for how they adhere to the “Code of Islamic medical ethics.”     

Peripheral Neuropathy with Sympathetic Overactivity from Industrial Contact with Acrylamide

This paper describes the experimental and clinical findings of acrylamide intoxication in a human being. It is believed that this is the first such case to be recorded in the medical literature.

Acrylamide is widely used as a “chemical grout”. It is pumped into dirt, clay and stone walls of excavations in a liquid state together with a catalyst, and it then polymerizes to make a watertight shield.

This chemical is neurotoxic in its non-polymerized form and can be absorbed through the intact skin, mucous membranes and lungs. In spite of warnings with regard to its handling, this worker became careless, and developed a contact dermatitis and a polyneuropathy with bluish cold extremities which dripped perspiration.

In six months' time after his removal from contact with the chemical the patient made a complete clinical recovery. He was advised not to work with the chemical.

     

Does the end justify the expense?

The case is described of a 70-year-old man, recently retired but fit and independent, except for haemophilia from which he had suffered all his life. However, he then had rectal bleeding for which he required treatment in hospital. To counteract the bleeding tendency he was transfused with various blood products but none was successful, and finally after an operation to determine precisely the source of the rectal bleeding, he developed peritonitis and died. Apart from the cost of hospital inpatient treatment and the blood products available from blood banks, £8500 was spent on blood products bought in the USA.

This case is discussed by a professor of haematology, a director of a regional blood transfusion service, a medical defence specialist, a consultant in geriatric medicine, and finally by a member of a university department of moral philosophy.

All the medical commentators agree that a very large sum of money was spent in treating this patient, particularly in buying supplies of commercially produced factor VIII which also carries attendant medical risks. But while this is so, it is also argued that the doctors in charge of the case could have done no other as the fatal outcome could not have been foreseen and a doctor's duty is to treat his patient to the best of his ability, even though in this case the patient was elderly and in the hospital concerned other projects had to be cancelled.

The `battle' of the treatment of the aged versus the young is touched upon by all the contributors but it is left to the moral philosopher to examine it more closely and incidentally to direct attention to the nature of the National Health Service which is neither a paternalistic system nor an insurance scheme (thought to be so by some to be a more palatable notion) but a welfare scheme in which the state forces its citizens to do things for the general good. For the moral philosopher age is irrelevant to the debate. Perhaps the consultant in geriatric medicine should have the last word: if the patient had been in the hands of a single general physician or geriatrician, he says, he would have been seen as a whole person and the arguments surrounding the case with hindsight would never have arisen.

     

Post-Gastrectomy Problems in Patients with Personality Defects: The “Albatross” Syndrome

Of a series of 130 patients undergoing operation for peptic ulcer disease at the Vancouver General Hospital, seven patients with personality defects had a disastrous outcome after operation.

The main features of this postgastrectomy syndrome were remarkably similar: persistent abdominal pain without demonstrable cause, intermittent and inexplicable nausea and vomiting, continued analgesic drug dependence and marked nutritional deficiencies. The high incidence was surprising and was not confined to any particular socioeconomic group. Such patients fall into three groups: those with true ulcer disease, those with salicylate addiction, and those without positive signs of ulcer but with chronic complaints. A history of a personality defect should warn the surgeon, and operation should be performed only for the complications of true ulcer disease. Though operation may cure the ulcer, the patient is worse off because the resulting physiologic derangements cannot be accepted or handled by him. These patients continue to haunt the surgeon, and the syndrome has been named the “albatross” syndrome.

     

The acceptability of ending a patient's life

Objectives: To clarify how lay people and health professionals judge the acceptability of ending the life of a terminally ill patient.

Design: Participants judged this acceptability in a set of 16 scenarios that combined four factors: the identity of the actor (patient or physician), the patient's statement or not of a desire to have his life ended, the nature of the action as relatively active (injecting a toxin) or passive (disconnecting life support), and the type of suffering (intractable physical pain, complete dependence, or severe psychiatric illness).

Participants: 115 lay people and 72 health professionals (22 nurse's aides, 44 nurses, six physicians) in Toulouse, France.

Main measurements: Mean acceptability ratings for each scenario for each group.

Results: Life ending interventions are more acceptable to lay people than to the health professionals. For both, acceptability is highest for intractable physical suffering; is higher when patients end their own lives than when physicians do so; and, when physicians are the actors, is higher when patients have expressed a desire to die (voluntary euthanasia) than when they have not (involuntary euthanasia). In contrast, when patients perform the action, acceptability for the lay people and nurse's aides does not depend on whether the patient has expressed a desire to die, while for the nurses and physicians unassisted suicide is more acceptable than physician assisted suicide.

Conclusions: Lay participants judge the acceptability of life ending actions in largely the same way as do healthcare professionals.

     

The Effects of Hypnotherapy on Homosexuality

Fifteen homosexuals were treated with hypnosis. The patients were selected from a general psychiatric practice and had a long history of confirmed homosexual behaviour and showed no evidence of organic or psychotic illness. The type of hypnotic induction attempted in all cases is described. In those where a satisfactory depth of hypnotic trance was achieved a change in sexual orientation was suggested to the patient.

Before therapy, each patient was assessed using the Kinsey scale. Results were evaluated in terms of the patient's subsequent behaviour and his subjective feelings. Of the 15 patients, three showed no improvement, four showed a mild improvement and eight showed a marked improvement. There was a significant correlation between the depth of hypnosis achieved and the therapeutic outcome. Those patients who reached a deep level of hypnotic trance were most likely to show a marked improvement. There were no significant correlations with other factors such as degree of homosexuality as measured on the Kinsey scale and the patient's marital status.

Treatment of homosexuals with hypnosis may produce more satisfactory results than those obtainable by other means. The best results are likely to be achieved in patients who are good hypnotic subjects.

     

Experience with a Diabetic Service in an “Open” Hospital

A survey of the management of diabetes mellitus in an “open” hospital, Calgary General Hospital, was conducted in 1954 by reviewing the records of 100 consecutive diabetic admissions and by interviewing medical, nursing and dietetic staff members. The diabetic state was controlled satisfactorily by diet and insulin, but early diabetic complications and patient education tended to be overlooked by physicians. Diabetic management from the nursing, administrative and dietetic standpoints was considered to be inefficient, unpredictable and incomplete.

In 1955 a comprehensive diabetic service was instituted which co-ordinated the activities of medical, nursing and dietetic staffs and provided for patient education. A repeat survey conducted in 1961, in which the records of 87 consecutive diabetic admissions were reviewed, showed marked improvement in all areas of diabetic patient care.

Objections to voluntary conformity by staff members were surprisingly absent. The institution of a diabetic service is recommended for all hospitals as a means of improving diabetic care.

     

Conflict of loyalties - Hippocratic or hypocritical?

The theme of this particular case seems to be one of protection - protection of all the individuals concerned, the patient's own GP, the patient, her mother and, in an even more subtle way, the patient's boyfriend.

As the title suggests, the dilemma consists of a conflict of loyalties as regards who should be protected first, from whom and why. The medical problem presented was one of termination of pregnancy, but a new ethical issue arose when the patient consulted another doctor in a neighbouring practice. It is this doctor - Dr Winterton - who puts his dilemma to the conference for discussion.

Those taking part were Dr Winterton, Dr Crew, Dr Jamieson, Dr Lamb, Dr Anderson, Dr Smith. All names in this Conference have been altered except that of the Chairman, Dr Higgs. The discussion was recorded at a residential course for general practitioners.

     

Defensive Thinking in Alcohol Addicts

Every day in Canada and the United States thousands of patients seek medical help for diseases and injuries acquired as a result of excessive alcohol consumption. Unfortunately much of the medical effort expended in this way is wasted. Failure to bridge the gap between initial treatment and a rehabilitation program is the main reason for this waste.

Since the power of the abnormal desire in addiction compels the victim to continue to indulge in spite of his awareness of his addiction, he becomes more and more defensive. His thinking is marked by alibis, lying, projection, resentment and suspicion. Resistance to treatment becomes an integral part of the disability.

The addict usually cannot stop defending his dependence simply because he is advised to do so. However, a physician can often find ways to interrupt defensive thinking long enough to initiate a treatment and rehabilitation program if he will consider the primary and secondary factors concerned.

     

Problems of the single-parent family unit

Case reports on single-parents families demonstrate some unique problems with which such a family unit must cope. Single mothers frequently present children to the family physician, pediatrician or child psychiatrist with specific symptom complaints. There exists a need to recognize that these symptoms may reflect the special problems of the single-parent family or unresolved issues which led to the formation of the unit.

To meet the needs of these parents the physician must explore the specific circumstances of such a family in some depth. Nonjudgmental recognition of their problems may decrease the tendency to view these problems as “psychiatric”. Increased awareness of this entity as a new social unit will help the physician choose proper techniques and appropriate resources to provide support.

     

Attainment of Optimum Health

The history of the worker in public health is reviewed, his present activities are assessed, and predictions are made concerning his future role. It is emphasized that the public health specialist is but one member of the total health team in the community. His interdependence with other disciplines must be accepted if optimal health care is to be provided.

Although prepared specifically for public health workers, this article has direct relevance to the future of the medical profession as a whole. In view of the present intense interest in the future pattern of health care in Canada, the viewpoint of a physician with a dual background in public health and medical school administration and teaching is considered to be particularly pertinent.

     

Sudden, Severe Mitral Insufficiency

Five male patients with sudden, severe mitral insufficiency due solely to ruptured chordae tendineae or papillary muscle had an abrupt onset of symptoms of left and right heart failure and the sudden appearance of a harsh, widely propagated apical pansystolic murmur. None had a history of rheumatic fever. All were in sinus rhythm and had but mild left atrial and ventricular enlargement. Giant left atrial “v” waves were characteristic and exceeded pulmonary artery pressure in two instances.

In contrast, when ruptured chordae tendineae were superimposed on chronic rheumatic mitral insufficiency, females predominated and there was a long history of disability. Atrial fibrillation, less elevation of left atrial pressure, and marked left atrial and ventricular enlargement were characteristic. These latter patients closely resembled patients with chronic rheumatic mitral insufficiency alone.

It is concluded that the syndrome of sudden, severe mitral insufficiency develops if ruptured chordae tendineae occur on a previously normal or insignificantly diseased mitral valve. If ruptured chordae tendineae are superimposed on chronic rheumatic mitral insufficiency, the syndrome resembles that seen in the latter alone.

     

Caring for the child with cancer at the close of life: "there are people who make it, and I'm hoping I'm one of them"

Craig A. Hurwitz, MD; Janet Duncan, MSN, CPNP; Joanne Wolfe, MD, MPH

JAMA. 2004;292:2141-2149.

Approximately 25% of children with cancer die of their disease. Early in the course of a patient's illness, it is often impossible to determine whether the disease will be cured with cancer-directed treatment. When potentially curative therapy is no longer an option, the patient, family, and oncology team face enormous medical, psychological, and spiritual challenges. Optimal palliative care requires willingness on the part of the physician and caregiver team to engage the patient and family in discussions of their hopes and fears and to provide solace and support for emotional and physical pain. Using the comments of a child in the terminal phase of acute leukemia, his mother, and his physician, we describe opportunities and important lessons often revealed only when families and their caregivers face the end of a child's life. A broad-minded assessment of the patient's and family's physical, emotional, and spiritual needs and clarification of realistic goals and hopes not only improves the clinical care that the patient receives but also contributes to the sense of satisfaction and meaning that the physician can gain from the experience of caring for children at the end of life.

     

A Reflection of Joan

A case history is reported to demonstrate a simple psychotherapeutic approach in family practice to patients with psychoneurotic illness with somatic complaints. The patient had a two-year history of multiple aches and pains, particularly centred on her abdomen. In two interviews, a total of one and a half hours, her problem was isolated more definitely and relief was provided for her symptoms. It is suggested that this is a practical approach to such patients, who are probably a large factor in any “overutilization” of physician's services.     

The Prevalence of Chronic Respiratory Disease in the Male Physicians of London, Ontario

a survey of respiratory disease among male physicians of London, Ontario, resulted in a 96.3% response.

The age-standardized rates of chronic bronchitis were not very different from others reported in the recent medical literature, taking into account smoking habits, but the overall prevalence of bronchial asthma was high (7.4%), with a low prevalence in the category “obstructive lung disease”. The possibility of overlap or interchange in these diagnoses is raised, although the diagnosis of bronchial asthma in this particular group is believed to be well established in every case.

A history of seasonal hay fever was given by 19.4%.

One of 88 (1%) non-smokers had bronchitis, whereas six of them (7%) had asthma.

Rhonchi heard in the chest, on a single examination, appeared to be most closely related to current smoking habits, ventilatory function tests and also to a clinical diagnosis of chronic bronchitis or obstructive lung disease, but not to bronchial asthma.