青少年正视眼与近视眼调节微波动的差异及其与波前像差的关系

背景 人眼在观察外界的物体时,调节反应呈现出持续波动状态.青少年阶段是近视发生和发展的关键时期,通过研究这一人群的调节微波动的特点及眼球像差的分布情况,将有助于我们理解近视的发生和进展.目的 研究持续阅读情况下青少年正视眼与近视眼调节微波动的差异及其与眼球像差之间的关系,探讨产生微波动差异的原因及其对近视发生和发展的影响.方法 前瞻性对照研究.纳入2010-2011年在温州医科大学附属眼视光医院进行定期眼科常规检查的12～15岁青少年54人,包括正视者19人和近视者35例,受试者均进行扩瞳后客观和主觉验光,然后根据受试者近2年来近视屈光度的变化情况将近视眼分为初发性近视组18例和进展性近视组17例.受试者分别在25、33和50 cm距离处阅读计算机显示屏上的文字,使用WAM-5500红外验光仪测量受试者阅读过程中的调节反应和调节微波动,每个注视距离检测5 min.将测得的调节反应值经频谱傅里叶分析后将微波动能量按频率划分为低频段组分(LFC) (0 ～0.6 Hz)、中频段组分(MFC)(0.6～0.9 Hz)和高频段组分(HFC)(1.0～1.4 Hz)进行计算和分析.采用i-Trace波前像差仪测量受试者全眼像差,用Humphrey角膜地形图仪采集和计算角膜像差,比较正视眼组、初发性近视组和进展性近视组受试眼调节反应、调节微波动和波前像差的差异,对受试者调节指标与波前像差间的关系进行分析.结果 在25 cm和33 cm的阅读距离下,正视眼组调节反应值分别为(2.78±0.35)D和(2.19±0.27)D,明显高于进展性近视组的(2.44±0.33)D和(1.89±0.35)D,差异均有统计学意义(P=0.002、0.003).受试者的LFC、MFC及HFC随阅读距离的缩短而增加,差异均有统计学意义(F阅读距离=8.480、14.270、21.400,均P＜0.01),但仅LFC值在3个组间总体差异有统计学意义(F分组=4.115,P＜0.05),其中进展性近视眼组LFC能量高于正视眼组,差异均有统计学意义(25 cm:P=0.044;33 cm:P=0.038;50 cm:P=0.032),3个组间MFC以及HFC值的差异均无统计学意义(F分组=0.859、0.682,均P＞0.05).在25 cm和33 cm阅读距离下,LFC值与角膜彗差、眼内彗差、全眼总高阶像差和眼内总高阶像差间均呈正相关(均P＜0.05),而MFC和HFC与像差间均无明显相关性.结论 青少年正视眼的调节反应强于进展性近视眼,而正视眼和初发性近视眼调节微波动能量小于进展性近视眼.近距离阅读下,调节微波动中仅LFC能量与人眼的高阶像差相关.     

不同屈光状态的模糊敏感度比较

目的分析不同屈光组模糊阈值之间的差异,探讨模糊阈值在近视发生发展中的可能作用机制。方法38名志愿者参加本实验,正视组15位,等效球镜度为0.50～-0.50D;近视组23位,其中稳定性近视组17位,屈光不正平均为(-4.76±1.40)D,进展性近视组6位,屈光不正平均为(-3.33±1.43)D。受试者在屈光全矫基础上,采用JND标准测量模糊阈值。结果正视组模糊阈值为(0.21±0.06)D,稳定性近视组为(0.27±0.05)D,进展性近视组为(0.33±0.06)D。近视组的模糊阈值高于正视组(P=0.001),近视组中,进展性近视组的模糊阈值高于稳定性近视组(P=0.028)。结论近视对模糊的敏感度下降,其中进展性近视的敏感度下降更显著,这可能是近视调节滞后增加的部分原因。     

持续近距离工作引起张力性调节的适应

目的研究正视者、早发性近视者和迟发性近视者在近距离工作后的张力性调节的适应现象。比较不同屈光度组的的位移现象差异。方法SEIKO—WV500检测受试者在近距离工作前和近距离工作10分钟后的张力性调节，并持续测量工作后的张力性调节90秒。结果大多数个体在近距离工作后的瞬间，张力性调节有上升趋势，迟发性近视组的张力性调节位移量高于早发性近视组和正视组。张力性调节的适应随着时间的推移逐渐向基线水平恢复，大部分个体在60秒内恢复至基线水平。结论迟发性近视在近距离工作后张力性调节有较大的正位移，迟发性近视组的张力性调节的回退可能是副交感运动的衰减所致。     

早发性近视和迟发性近视的张力性调节分析

目的分析早发性近视组和迟发性近视组的张力性调节及其之间的差异,探讨调节神经机制在张力性调节与近视发生、发展中的作用。方法50名志愿者参加本实验,正视组16位,屈光度在(-0.25～+0.75)D之间,近视组34位,其中早发性近视组12位[平均为(-6.25±2.30)D],迟发性近视组22位[平均为(-3.41±2.05)D]。在完全黑暗的环境下,用精工SeikoWV500开放视野式自动验光仪对受试者进行张力性调节的测量,比较不同近视组间张力性调节的差异。结果在缺乏任何视觉刺激的状态下,调节处于一定的静息状态,所有受试者的张力性调节的平均值为(0.63±0.67)D。其中正视组的张力性调节平均为(0.55±0.50)D,早发性近视组的张力性调节为(1.22±0.71)D,迟发性近视组的张力性调节平均为(0.37±0.59)D。屈光度和张力性调节之间的相关性较弱(r=0.2388)。早发性近视的张力性调节高于正视组和迟发性近视组的张力性调节,差异有非常显著性(P<0.001)。结论与正视及迟发性近视比较,早发性近视者有较强的副交感神经支配,较强的副交感神经支配导致较强的睫状肌张力,从而导致眼球的牵拉和近视化的进展。     

早发性近视和迟发性近视张力性调节的比较

目的:通过一种测量张力性调节的方法,了解迟发性近视、早发性近视和正视眼的张力性调节表现。探讨张力性调节与近视的相互关系。方法:志愿参加本实验者54例,正视组18例,屈光度(-0.25～ 0.50)D之间,早发性近视组18例,平均为(-6.50±2.40)D,迟发性近视组18例,平均为(-3.00±1.75)D。在完全黑暗的环境下,用偏振光游标式调节检测仪对受试者进行张力性调节的测量,比较迟发性近视、早发性近视和正视眼的张力性调节的差异。结果:在缺乏任何视觉刺激的状态下,调节处于一定的静息状态,所有受试者张力性调节的平均值为(0.90±0.76)D。其中正视组的张力性调节平均为(0.80±0.64)D,早发性近视组的张力性调节为(1.32±0.80)D,迟发性近视组的张力性调节平均为(0.62±0.46)D。早发性近视的张力性调节高于正视组和迟发性近视组的张力性调节,差异有非常显著性(P<0.001);正视组和迟发性近视组的张力性调节,差异无显著性(P>0.05)。结论:早发性近视者有较强睫状肌的基础张力水平,易导致牵拉眼球而使近视进展。     

快速序列视觉呈现方式阅读状态下不同屈光组调节反应的差异

目的研究快速序列视觉呈现方式（rapid serial visual presentation．RSVP）阅读状态下进展性近视、稳定性近视和正视之间调节反应的差异，探讨调节因素在近视发生、发展过程中的表达。方法45例受试者参加本实验，分为进展性近视、稳定性近视和正视组，各15例。阅读材料为位于距受试者左眼角膜平面25cm处的电脑显示屏上的一篇中文短文．通过RSVP软件呈现单个字符．字体大小为9pt，文字呈现速度为150字／min。使用SEIKO—WV500自动验光仪测量其开放视野阅读状态下左眼的调节反应。结果所有受试者在4D的调节刺激下，均存在一定程度的调节滞后，个体差异较大。进展性近视组的调节反应低于正视组[（2．32±0．43）0VS（3．19±0．53）0，P〈0．01]，进展性近视组的调节反应亦低于稳定性近视组[（2．32±0．43）0VS（3.07±0．34）D，P〈0．01]，而正视组和稳定性近视组差异无显著性（P=0．441）。结论近距离阅读状态下进展性近视有较高的调节滞后，远视性离焦造成的模糊斑可能是近视的发生发展的促成因素，随着近视发展的稳定．调节反应恢复至一般水平。     

近视青少年在阅读状态下调节反应和像差的研究

背景近距离工作时,视网膜的成像质量受调节、瞳孔和像差的共同影响;而近距离工作时视网膜成像的清晰度又被认为是青少年近视发生发展的可能诱因。因此,研究近视及正视青少年在阅读状态下的眼动参数和像差的差异性显得尤为重要。目的研究有初发性近视和进展性近视的青少年在阅读状态下的调节反应、瞳孔直径和像差的差异,从视网膜离焦诱导近视和像差诱导近视这两个假说探讨调节反应和像差与近视发生发展的相关机制。方法57例年龄12～16岁青少年受试者分为正视组16眼、初发性近视组20眼和进展性近视组21眼。嘱受试者阅读左眼前25effl处电脑显示屏上由快速序列视觉呈现方式软件所呈现的一篇中文短文,用SEIKO—WV500型自动验光仪测量调节反应,实时录像记录瞳孔直径,并用WASCA波前像差仪测量像差,对3组间的结果进行比较。结果各组受试者的调节反应和像差的个体差异均较大,在4D的调节刺激下,初发性近视组和进展性近视组的调节滞后值为（1．72±0．53）D,（1．74±0．44）D,高于正视组的（0．96±0．55）D,差异有统计学意义（t=4．25、t=4．47,P〈0．01）。初发性近视组和进展性近视组的调节滞后差异无统计学意义（t=0．18,P〉0．05）。调节刺激在0～4D时,所有受试者的瞳孔直径、全眼像差、高阶像差、球差和彗差均随着调节力的增加而显著减小（P〈0．01）,但在同一调节刺激下,不同屈光组之间受试者的瞳孔直径、全眼像差、高阶像差、球差和彗差的差异均无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。结论初发性近视和近视进展过程中在近距离阅读状态下存在较高的调节滞后,近距离阅读状态下对离焦的低模糊敏感性、较高的调节滞后及远视性离焦可能是近视发生、发展的促进因素。     

短时间平板电脑游戏对青少年近视患者调节反应和调节微波动的影响

背景 近距离使用电子平板设备是造成近视发生和进展的危险因素之一,研究此类设备对人眼调节系统的影响可能为近视防控提供新的思路. 目的 观察短时间进行平板电脑游戏前后青少年近视患者的调节反应值、调节微波动以及瞳孔直径的变化. 方法 采用前瞻性系列病例观察研究方法,纳入2014年8月至2015年4月于北京大学人民医院就诊的60例青少年近视患者,患者平均年龄(11.6±2.6)岁,平均等效球镜屈光度(SER)为(-2.38±1.08)D.采用随机数字表法将60例受试者随机分成不同游戏时间组,分别进行3、5和10 min iPAD电脑平板游戏,采用开放视野红外验光仪记录受试者游戏前后的瞳孔直径和调节数据,将采集的调节数据减去理论调节反应值计算为实际调节反应值,以实际调节反应值的均方根(RMS)作为调节微波动幅度,采用一维离散傅里叶变换法分析调节反应曲线的频谱特征.采用配对t检验对各组游戏前后的调节反应值、调节微波动幅度以及瞳孔直径进行比较.采用Wilcoxon符号秩检验对各组游戏前后调节反应曲线的高频信号占总信号功率百分比进行分析.结果 10 min组受试者游戏后的调节反应值为(0.74±0.27)D,明显低于游戏前的(0.81±0.29)D,差异有统计学意义(t=2.263,P=0.036),而3 min组和5 min组受试者游戏前后的调节反应值差异均无统计学意义(均P＞0.05).10 min组受试者游戏后调节微波动幅度(RMS)为(0.31±0.08)D,较游戏前的(0.27±0.09)D明显增加,差异有统计学意义(t=-2.259,P=0.036),而3 min组和5 min组受试者游戏前后的调节微波动幅度差异无统计学意义(均P＞0.05).3个组受试者游戏后调节微波动高频信号均高于游戏前,其中5 min组和10 min组受试者游戏前后高频信号比较差异均有统计学意义(Z=-2.213、-2.016,均P＜0.05).3个组受试者游戏后瞳孔直径较游戏前均缩小,其中5 min组和10 min组受试者游戏前后瞳孔直径的差异均有统计学意义(t=2.428,P=0.026;t=2.515,P=0.021). 结论 青少年近视患者进行短时间平板电脑游戏并不加重调节滞后,但是调节微波动幅度增加及调节反应曲线高频信号成分的增加均可能导致图像模糊,对控制近视进展不利.     

近视眼在持续性近距离阅读时周边屈光状态的变化

目的 研究近视者在持续性近距离工作状态下,近视眼周边屈光状态的变化及其变化规律,探讨其对近视发生、发展产生影响的可能机制.方法 25名近视志愿者参加本实验,年龄为23～33岁,平均年龄为（26.6±0.4）岁,等效球镜度数为-1.50～-6.50 D,平均为（-3.75±0.33）D,散光量〈0.75 D.用软性角膜接触镜对其双眼进行全矫,采用Grand Seilko WAM-5500红外自动验光仪,测量视远5 m和近注视33 cm调节状态下,以及33 cm注视距离下持续阅读45 min后右眼中心和颞侧30°的周边屈光度数20次,排除（均数±2×标准差）范围外的数据,然后取均值.屈光度数和周边屈光状态分别采用等效球镜和相对周边屈光度进行描述和分析.采用配对t检验和Pearson相关分析对测量结果进行统计学分析.结果 在视远状态时,人眼的相对周边屈光度为（0.99±0.66）D,呈现远视化状态;近注视调节状态时,周边屈光度为（0.73±0.61）D,远视化程度下降,较视远状态下差异无统计学意义（t=1.71,P=0.10）;持续性近距离阅读工作后,周边屈光度为（1.05±0.68）D,远视化程度更明显,较阅读前近注视状态时差异有统计学意义（t=-8.33,P=0.00）;近距离阅读前调节反应为（2.15±0.32）D,近距离阅读后略有上升至（2.19±0.33）D.但两者差异无统计学意义（t=1.43,P=0.17）.对持续近距离工作前、后的调节反应变化值与周边屈光状态变化值进行相关性分析,两者无显著相关性（r=-0.272,P=0.188）.结论 近视眼在持续近距离工作状态下周边屈光度数有显著变化,呈现暂时性的远视性漂移,比近距离工作前周边远视性离焦更大.由此推测,近视的发生及发展可能与持续性近距离阅读状态下周边屈光度数的变化（即周边显著离焦）有关.     

视标呈现方式和注视方式对调节及调节微波动的影响

背景 研究表明,作为非光学因素,认知对调节系统存在一定的影响,因此客观、准确的实验设计是评价非光学因素对调节系统影响的关键步骤之一. 目的 研究视标呈现方式和注视方式对调节及调节微波动的影响,并进一步探讨认知中专注注视这一高水平注意因素对调节系统影响及近距离工作下专注注视的注视状态与近视发生发展的可能关系.方法 选择健康志愿者30例,平均年龄(24.80±1.98)岁,平均等效屈光度为(-1.92±2.02)D,平均柱镜屈光度为(-0.19±0.58)D.所有测量在屈光全矫下进行.采用开放视野红外自动验光仪测量受试者双眼注视40 cm处随机呈现的不同视标注视状态下右眼的调节反应.视标设计为专注注视状态和放松注视状态. 结果 受试者在专注注视状态下的调节反应均值为(1.86±0.26)D,放松注视状态下的调节反应均值为(1.27±0.39)D,差异有统计学意义(t=-8.052,P=0.000).受试者在专注注视状态下的调节微波动均值为(0.17±0.06)D,放松注视状态下的调节微波动均值为(0.28±0.17)D,差异有统计学意义(t=3.600,P=0.001).结论 视标的呈现方式和注视方式可影响调节反应,专注注视这一高水平注意因素使调节系统的调整更加精确、稳定.     

Variability of the accommodation response in early onset myopia.

PURPOSE: Hyperopic retinal defocus (blur) is thought to be a cause of myopia. If the retinal image of an object is not clearly focused, the resulting blur is thought to cause the continuing lengthening of the eyeball during development causing a permanent refractive error. Both lag of accommodation, especially for near targets, and greater variability in the accommodative response, have been suggested as causes of increased hyperopic retinal blur. Previous studies of lag of accommodation show variable findings. In comparison, greater variability in the accommodative response has been demonstrated in adults with late onset myopia but has not been tested in children. This study looked at the lag and variability of accommodation in children with early onset myopia. METHODS: Twenty-one myopic and 18 emmetropic children were tested. Dynamic measures of accommodation and pupil size were made using eccentric photorefraction (PowerRefractor) while children viewed targets set at three different accommodative demands (0.25, 2, and 4 D). RESULTS: We found no difference in accommodative lag between groups. However, the accommodative response was more variable in the myopes than emmetropes when viewing both the near (4 D) and far (0.25 D) targets. Since pupil size and variability also varied, we analyzed the data to determine whether this could account for the inter-group differences in accommodation variability. Variation in these factors was not found to be sufficient to explain these differences. Changes in the accommodative response variability with target distance were similar to patterns reported previously in adult emmetropes and late onset myopes. CONCLUSIONS: Children with early onset myopia demonstrate greater accommodative variability than emmetropic children, and have similar patterns of response to adult late onset myopes. This increased variability could result in an increase in retinal blur for both near and far targets. The role of accommodative variability in the etiology of myopia is discussed.     

Stimulus requirements for the decoding of myopic and hyperopic defocus under single and competing defocus conditions in the chicken

PURPOSE: The bidirectional nature of emmetropization, as observed in young chicks, implies that eyes are able to distinguish between myopic and hyperopic focusing errors. In the current study the spatial frequency and contrast dependence of this process were investigated in an experimental paradigm that allowed strict control over both parameters of the retinal image. Also investigated was the influence of accommodation. METHODS: Defocusing stimuli were presented through lens-cone devices with attached targets. These devices were monocularly applied to 5-day-old chickens for 4 days. Defocus conditions included: (1) 7 D of myopic defocus, (2) 7 D of hyperopic defocus, and (3) a combination of the two. Two high contrast target designs, a spatially rich, striped Maltese cross (target 1) and a standard Maltese cross (target 2) were used, except in some experiments where target contrast or spatial frequency content was further manipulated. To test the role of accommodation, the treated eye of some chicks underwent ciliary nerve section before attachment of the device. Refractive error (RE) was measured by retinoscopy and axial ocular dimensions measured by A-scan ultrasonography, both in chicks under anesthesia. RESULTS: With imposed myopic defocus and high contrast, target 1 elicited significantly better compensation than did target 2. With imposed hyperopic defocus, both targets elicited near normal compensatory responses. Reducing image contrast to 32% for target 2 and to 16% for target 1 precluded compensation for myopic defocus, inducing myopia instead. The low-pass-filtered target also induced myopia, irrespective of the sign of imposed defocus. With competing defocus and intact accommodation, target 1 induced a transient hyperopic growth response, whereas myopia was consistently observed with target 2. When accommodation was rendered inactive, both targets induced myopia under these competitive conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Compensation to myopic defocus is critically dependent on the inclusion of middle to high spatial frequencies in the stimulus and has a spatial frequency-dependent threshold contrast requirement. With competing myopic and hyperopic defocus, the former transiently dominates the latter as a determinant of ocular growth, provided that the stimulus conditions include sufficient middle to high spatial frequency information and that accommodation cues are available.     

Retinotopic accommodation responses in myopia

PURPOSE: A reduced sensitivity to retinal image blur has been reported in myopes. Diminished blur detection reduces the error signal to the retinotopic (blur-induced) accommodation system and results in impaired accommodation responses under retinotopic conditions. This study was conducted to investigate retinotopic accommodation responses in emmetropia and myopia under dynamic conditions. METHODS: Static accommodation responses to a blur-only target with vergences of 0 to 4.5 D were measured with an optometer. Microfluctuations of accommodation were recorded with the subject viewing the target at a vergence of 4 D, and dynamic step responses were measured for step stimuli from 2.5 to 3.5 D and 2.0 to 4.0 D, with the optometer in dynamic recording mode. Measurements were obtained from a group of 32 visually normal emmetropes (EMMs) and subjects with progressing myopia. RESULTS: Stimulus-response curves were not significantly different between the refractive groups. Subjects with late-onset myopia (LOMs) demonstrated significantly larger accommodation microfluctuations compared with emmetropes and subjects with early-onset myopia (EOMs). Fourier analysis revealed that the increase in the magnitude of the fluctuations was mediated by the low-frequency components. Accommodation step responses revealed longer reaction times in LOMs. Further analysis showed that LOMs responded to accommodation step stimuli only between 43% and 64% of the time. In contrast, the other groups showed a response rate of almost 100%. CONCLUSIONS: The experiments demonstrate a reduction in retinotopic processing in LOMs, which results in an increased variability in their dynamic accommodation response to stationary near targets and reduced performance for dynamic step tasks. The results demonstrate a reduced blur appreciation under dynamic conditions in these refractive groups that may lead to periods of retinal image blur of varying magnitude during near work.     

Higher order aberrations,refractive error development and myopia control: a review

Evidence from animal and human studies suggests that ocular growth is influenced by visual experience. Reduced retinal image quality and imposed optical defocus result in predictable changes in axial eye growth. Higher order aberrations are optical imperfections of the eye that alter retinal image quality despite optimal correction of spherical defocus and astigmatism. Since higher order aberrations reduce retinal image quality and produce variations in optical vergence across the entrance pupil of the eye, they may provide optical signals that contribute to the regulation and modulation of eye growth and refractive error development. The magnitude and type of higher order aberrations vary with age, refractive error, and during near work and accommodation. Furthermore, distinctive changes in higher order aberrations occur with various myopia control treatments, including atropine, near addition spectacle lenses, orthokeratology and soft multifocal and dual-focus contact lenses. Several plausible mechanisms have been proposed by which higher order aberrations may influence axial eye growth, the development of refractive error, and the treatment effect of myopia control interventions. Future studies of higher order aberrations, particularly during childhood, accommodation, and treatment with myopia control interventions are required to further our understanding of their potential role in refractive error development and eye growth.     

Relationship of accommodative response and nearpoint phoria in a sample of myopic children.

Esophoria has been associated with onset and progression of myopia in children. The induction of myopia by optical defocus shown by animal models suggests that a high lag of accommodation during near work may contribute to myopia in children. This paper examines the relationship of nearpoint phoria and accommodative response in a sample of children with myopia. Accommodative response was measured under binocular conditions with the Canon Autoref R-1 autorefractor with a 40 cm viewing distance. Phorias were measured with the von Graefe method using a 40 cm test distance. In the statistical analysis exophoria was scored as a negative number and esophoria was scored as a positive number. The coefficient of correlation of accommodative response with phoria was -0.32 (n = 73; p<0.01), thus showing an association of a more positive (more convergent) near phoria with lower accommodative response. The correlation coefficient increased to -0.39 when an exponential function was used. When only esophores were considered, the correlation coefficient was -0.59 (n = 44; p<0.001). Lower accommodative response (higher lag of accommodation) was associated with greater esophoria.     

Amount of defocus is not used as an error signal in the control system of accommodation dynamics

Usually defocus is considered as the error signal in the negative feedback system of accommodation control. However it is difficult to estimate the amount of defocus from the contrast reduction of a retinal image because both defocus and the spatial structure of the target determine the contrast. To investigate whether the accommodation control system can perceive the amount of error signal (defocus) from the contrast reduction of a retinal image, step responses for various amplitudes of stimuli were measured. The traces were analysed using an exponential curve fitting method in which not only time constant, but also final value of the curve, could be estimated from a portion of the exponential curve. The near-to-far (or -intermediate) step responses have a common path and show that the curve initially goes towards a certain position around the dark focus of the subject and is suddenly clipped around the correct focus position. The time constant and the destination of the curve are independent from the stimulus step amplitude (amount of error). This fact suggests that the accommodative control system does not refer to the amount of error signal when error is large, and that the system monitors only whether retinal blur exists or not. When the system judges the retinal image to be no longer blurred during the preprogrammed fast movement, accommodative response is stopped suddenly and the control is transferred to the other mechanism to hold correct focusing.     

Oculomotor functions and late-onset myopia

In order to elucidate the role of optical defocus in the development of late-onset myopia (LOM), we employed both theoretical and experimental approaches. In the theoretical study, which has been reported previously, we suggested a model in which an accommodative sensory operator was added to simulate the sensory part of the accommodation system. Results derived from the model showed that the sensory part might increase the system's threshold to the accommodative error (or defocus) signal. In this study, we measured the perceptual depth-of-focus and the system's threshold to the defocus signal for three refractive error groups: emmetropic (Emm), stable myopic (S.M.), and progressing myopic (P.M.). Results show that there are no significant differences in the perceptual depth-of-focus among the three groups. However, the defocus threshold values of the P.M. group are significantly higher than the values of the other two groups. This result in combination with our previous findings, leads us to suggest that individuals susceptible of developing myopia from sustained near-work have a specific oculomotor risk profile. Although we are still trying to determine the specific sequence of changes among dark-focus, AC/A ratio, the accommodative system's defocus threshold, and refractive error, we are convinced that the changes of oculomotor parameters underlie the type of myopia associated with near-work.     

The effect of blur adaptation on accommodative response and pupil size during reading

To study the effect of blur adaptation on accommodative variability, accommodative responses and pupil diameters in myopes (n = 22) and emmetropes (n = 19) were continuously measured before, during, and after exposure to defocus blur. Accommodative and pupillary response measurements were made by an autorefractor during a monocular reading exercise. The text was presented on a computer screen at 33 cm viewing distance with a rapid serial visual presentation paradigm. After baseline testing and a 5-min rest, blur was induced by wearing either an optimally refractive lens, or a +1.0 DS or a +3.0 DS defocus lens. Responses were continuously measured during a 5-min period of adaptation. The lens was then removed, and measurements were again made during a 5-min post-adaptation period. After a second 5-min rest, a final post-adaptation period was measured. No significant change of baseline accommodative responses was found after the 5-min period of adaptation to the blurring lenses (p > 0.05). Compared to the pre-adaptation level, both refractive groups had similar and significant increases in accommodative variability right after blur adaptation to both defocus lenses. After the second rest period, the accommodative variability in both groups returned to the pre-adaptation level. The results indicate that blur adaptation has a short-term effect on the accommodative system to elevate instability of the accommodative response. Mechanisms underlying the increase in accommodative variability by blur adaptation and possible influences of the accommodation stability on myopia development were discussed.     

Quantitative analysis of the effect of near lens addition on accommodation and myopigenesis

PURPOSE: To develop a quantitative, objective, and scientific basis for understanding the effects of applying near bifocal additions (ADDs) on oculomotor control and myopia development. This is important because myopia is a major public health problem that affects 25% of the U.S. population and 75% or more in Asian countries. It is also associated with an increased risk for vision-threatening conditions, such as retinal breaks and detachments, as well as glaucoma. METHODS: A comprehensive model of refractive error development was constructed based on a dual-interactive feedback model of accommodation and vergence, which represented the short-term dynamics pathway, with the addition of both genetic and environmental (defocus-induced axial growth) components in a long-term pathway. An alternating near- and far-viewing paradigm was simulated, with varying amounts of ADDs, to obtain a parametric relationship between the root mean square of accommodative error (AE) and the induced refractive error (IRE). The parametric relationship provided the crucial linkage between the long-term growth pathway and the conventional short-term dynamics pathway. ADD is the simulated lens placed before the eyes only during near viewing, whereas IRE is the simulated lens fixed before the eyes that represents the optical effect of slowly progressive refractive development caused by near work. RESULTS: A V-shaped functional relationship was found between AE and IRE. The left half of the curve is associated with hyperopic defocus and myopigenesis, whereas the right half is associated with myopic defocus and hyperogenesis. Introduction of an ADD shifts the V-shaped curve horizontally. Thus, an "optimal" ADD can be used to shift the minimum of the accommodative error curve to the zero IRE point, and thereby reduce or eliminate retinal defocus and its potential towards myopigenesis. On the other hand, sensitivity analysis of model parameters shows that increasing the accommodative convergence crosslink gain (AC) shifts the curve to the right and results in a tendency towards myopigenesis, which is consistent with clinical findings in progressive myopia. CONCLUSIONS: The model can be used to specify the precise ADD needed for an individual to retard or eliminate retinal defocus-induced myopic progression. If future experiments show that using the "optimal" ADD results in the greatest benefit (i.e., least myopia progression), there will be considerable worldwide public health benefit.