The dysfunctional host response to influenza A H7N9: a potential treatment option?

The newly emerging human pathogen influenza A H7N9 represents a potentially major threat to human health. The virus was first shown to be pathogenic in humans in 2013, and outbreaks continue to occur in China to the present time. The current incident mortality rate is disturbingly high despite the frequent use of antiviral therapy and intensive care management. If the virus gains the capacity for efficient person-to-person transmission, a global influenza pandemic could ensue with devastating consequences. In the absence of an effective vaccine, targeted regulation of the host immune response by immune modulators might be considered. Readily available, approved drugs with immune-modulating activities might prove to be a treatment option in combination with existing antiviral agents and supportive care.In this issue of Critical Care Wu and colleagues provide a tantalizing glimpse into the immune dysfunction and possible immunopathogenesis of infection due to the novel H7N9 avian strain of influenza A virus [1]. Human cases of H7N9 influenza have thus far occurred only in China and surrounding regions [2-4], but there is disturbing evidence that this virus could easily evolve and create a pandemic of immense proportions. The observed case fatality rate in H7N9 influenza is much higher (about 25%) than that seen in patients infected with pandemic H1N1 virus in 2009 [5,6]. The H7N9 virus is derived from an avian influenza A virus that has crossed species barriers to infect humans, primarily those who have had exposure to live poultry markets. The virus spreads by respiratory aerosols, and limited human-to-human transmission probably occurs, although there is no evidence of continued spread thus far [2,3]. The virus causes essentially asymptomatic infection in chickens, but when transmitted to humans it leads to a highly symptomatic and potentially lethal illness. Severe H7N9 illness affects predominantly older patients (mean age ≥60 years), unlike pandemic H1N1 or avian influenza A H5H1 virus infections that affect younger individuals [1].Wu and colleagues studied 27 H7N9 patients who were hospitalized at one center in Zhejiang Province in China and compared their immune responses with 30 healthy controls. All of the patients were severely ill (mean Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score 22) and all were treated with oseltamivir. Diffuse lymphopenia was seen in two-thirds of patients. More than 70% of patients developed acute respiratory distress syndrome and almost 50% acquired secondary bacterial pneumonia.On the day of admission, the investigators performed multiplex cytokine analyses and flow cytometry to survey circulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells for activation or markers of T-cell anergy or exhaustion. Compared with healthy controls, cytokine analyses revealed elevated IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10 levels, but no increase in tumor necrosis factor, gamma-interferon or other proinflammatory cytokines. Flow cytometry showed increases in CD38, a marker of T-cell activation, and T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin protein-3 (TIM3), a surface marker for T-cell anergy/exhaustion. Conversely, human leukocyte antigen DR expression and TIM3-expressing monocytes were significantly lower. TIM3 is a well-characterized indicator of T-cell exhaustion in the mice, but this may not be true in humans [7]. Regrettably, the investigators did not measure programmed cell death-1 on T cells, which is a reliable marker of lymphocyte exhaustion in both mice and humans [1]. They were also unable to perform serial determinations of inflammatory markers to document the course of immune dysfunction over time.The clinical and immunologic findings in H7N9 influenza differ substantially from those seen in younger patients infected by the pandemic H1N1 influenza virus or the more pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1 viruses [1]. H5N1 patients often have significant elevations of tumor necrosis factor and gamma-interferon, neither of which was seen with H7N9 influenza. Instead, a mixed pattern of proinflammatory (IL-6 and IL-8) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines was observed, along with simultaneous expressions of T-cell activation (CD38) and de-activation (TIM3). These differences might reflect the unique virulence properties of the H7N9 virus or differences in the host response of older H7N9 patients.A major question is whether patients with severe H7N9 influenza could benefit from immune modulator therapy in addition to antiviral agents and supportive care [8,9]. Many fundamental questions need to be answered. It is unclear whether the immune profile described by Wu and colleagues is a manifestation of the host response to the virus or whether immune dysregulation is actually contributing to the pathogenesis of the disease. Could the immune response be specifically targeted to aid patient recovery? Optimal treatment may not simply be a question of giving proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory agents. It may depend upon patient age, the specific virus, the presence of co-morbid illness, the extent of disease and the timing of the intervention [10-12].Several commonly prescribed therapeutic agents that have immunomodulatory effects have been shown to be effective in treating influenza in experimental settings and in observational studies of patients with pneumonia and influenza (and even one randomized controlled trial in sepsis; Table 9,13]. Statins are the agents best studied, but several other drug classes might also have clinical utility [13,14]. Many of these drugs are produced as inexpensive generics and are widely distributed in low-income and middle-income countries [9,13].

Table 1

Low-cost, readily available drugs with immunomodulatory activities that could benefit patients with severe influenza

Coronary vasomotor disorders during hypoxia-reoxygenation: do calcium channel blockers play a protective role?

During heart surgery, myocardial dysfunction may occasionally appear when extracorporeal circulation is discontinued, causing serious haemodynamic disorders. Many mechanisms are involved in this hypoxia-reoxygenation syndrome. The aim of this experimental study was to characterize the vasomotor disorders that take place in the isolated porcine coronary artery during in vitro hypoxia-reoxygenation and to analyse the effect of nifedipine on them. Rings of porcine coronary artery were placed in an organ chamber connected to a system that recorded isometric forces. The vascular rings were divided into two groups: control group (no nifedipine) and study group (nifedipine, 10^-6 mol/l). The vascular rings were precontracted with 30 mmol/l KCl and then hypoxia-reoxygenation was induced. Control arterial rings showed important changes in coronary vasomotor tone: severe hypoxic contraction (from 14.48ǃ.16 g of stable contraction to 17.6ǂ.44 g after the imposition of hypoxia), and transient vasodilation during reoxygenation (69.9ᆞ.1% of the maximum contraction achieved). The nifedipine group experienced a slow, progressive, vasodilation throughout the whole experiment (73Dž.5% of the maximum contraction). Neither hypoxic vasospasm nor fluctuations of the coronary vascular tone occurred. Thus, at the end of the hypoxia, the control vessels presented a degree of contraction similar to the initial level. However, in the rings treated with nifedipine, the percentage of dilation was 73Dž.5% (P<0.05). In the isolated porcine coronary artery with intact endothelium undergoing a situation of hypoxia-reoxygenation, we have detected transient vasoconstriction during the first period of hypoxia, followed by vasodilation during reoxygenation. The intracoronary administration of nifedipine prior to the imposition of hypoxia prevents hypoxic contraction, achieving a greater and more stable degree of coronary vasorelaxation during the complete process of hypoxia-reoxygenation.     

Coronary vasomotor disorders during hypoxia-reoxygenation: do calcium channel blockers play a protective role?

During heart surgery, myocardial dysfunction may occasionally appear when extracorporeal circulation is discontinued, causing serious haemodynamic disorders. Many mechanisms are involved in this hypoxia-reoxygenation syndrome. The aim of this experimental study was to characterize the vasomotor disorders that take place in the isolated porcine coronary artery during in vitro hypoxia-reoxygenation and to analyse the effect of nifedipine on them. Rings of porcine coronary artery were placed in an organ chamber connected to a system that recorded isometric forces. The vascular rings were divided into two groups: control group (no nifedipine) and study group (nifedipine, 10^?6 mol/l). The vascular rings were precontracted with 30 mmol/l KCl and then hypoxia-reoxygenation was induced. Control arterial rings showed important changes in coronary vasomotor tone: severe hypoxic contraction (from 14.48±1.16 g of stable contraction to 17.6±0.44 g after the imposition of hypoxia), and transient vasodilation during reoxygenation (69.9±10.1% of the maximum contraction achieved). The nifedipine group experienced a slow, progressive, vasodilation throughout the whole experiment (73±3.5% of the maximum contraction). Neither hypoxic vasospasm nor fluctuations of the coronary vascular tone occurred. Thus, at the end of the hypoxia, the control vessels presented a degree of contraction similar to the initial level. However, in the rings treated with nifedipine, the percentage of dilation was 73±3.5% (P<0.05). In the isolated porcine coronary artery with intact endothelium undergoing a situation of hypoxia-reoxygenation, we have detected transient vasoconstriction during the first period of hypoxia, followed by vasodilation during reoxygenation. The intracoronary administration of nifedipine prior to the imposition of hypoxia prevents hypoxic contraction, achieving a greater and more stable degree of coronary vasorelaxation during the complete process of hypoxia-reoxygenation.     

Why are (or are not) patients given the option to enter clinical trials?

Much attention has been paid to the use of ethical principles to guide the conduct of clinical trials. Less has been done to clarify and assess the "weights" assigned by clinicians (and others) to the values that come into conflict when patients are offered entry into trials. Quantitative techniques of value assessment were used to measure the relative importance of variables frequently identified as barriers to the entry of patients into clinical trials. Responses were obtained from 52 oncologists, 26 clinical trials and senior nurses, and 23 family physicians. The group of oncologists identified the scientific design of the trial as the most important factor. In contrast, the groups of nurses and family physicians gave higher weight to effects of the trial on the doctor-patient relationship. The results illustrate ways in which methods of value assessment may be used to clarify and rank values.     

Commotio cordis and L‐type calcium channel mutation: Is there a link?

Commotio cordis is a rare phenomenon when ventricular fibrillation and sudden death occurs with a blunt, nonpenetrating blow to the chest. Individual susceptibility to commotio cordis has been demonstrated in swine models, and might be present in humans as well. We report a case of commotio cordis in an adolescent with a heterozygous mutation on the gene CACNA1C, encoding for an L‐type calcium channel expressed in the heart. This genetic mutation has been previously associated with a phenotype of long‐QT syndrome; however, this was not demonstrated in our patient despite extensive investigations. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of commotio cordis in which an ion‐channel gene mutation involved in repolarization abnormalities has been documented. This finding might corroborate the hypothesis that a genetic predisposition plays a role in the individual susceptibility to this rare cause of cardiac arrest.     

Anidulafungin: is it a promising option in the treatment of pediatric invasive fungal infections?

Cases of invasive fungal infections are increasing globally due to an increase in the immunosuppressed population, the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and the invasive instrumentation of patients in intensive care units. Ongoing emergence of resistance and problems with toxicity have resulted in the need for the development of new antifungal agents. Anidulafungin, the most recently developed echinocandin, is approved by the US FDA for treatment of candidemia, other forms of Candida infection and esophageal candidiasis in non-neutropenic adult patients, but it is not currently licensed for pediatric usage. The drug is projected to be distinctive owing to its unique pharmacokinetics and is already listed in adult antifungal treatment guidelines. In this article, anidulafungin will be reviewed with a focus on pediatric patients.     

Haemolytic uraemic syndrome after living-donor liver transplantation: is small-for-size graft a potential risk factor?

Haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) is a rare complication of solid organ transplantation. Immunosuppressive drugs, including cyclosporin A and tacrolimus, have frequently been incriminated. Here we report a case of tacrolimus-induced HUS in a woman with small-for-size syndrome after living-donor liver transplantation. Hypertension, microangiopathic anaemia and end-stage renal failure occurred in the immediate post-transplant period; all other risk factors that might be implicated in the development of HUS were investigated and excluded if no evidence was found. A possible association between small-for-size syndrome, which frequently results in a high blood concentration of tacrolimus post-operatively, and the occurrence of HUS is discussed.     

Angiotensin receptor blockers in the treatment of NASH/NAFLD: Could they be a first-class option?

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a condition pathogenically linked to metabolic syndrome (MS) by insulin resistance (IR), and characterized by hepatic steatosis in the absence of significant alcohol use, hepatotoxicity, and/or other known liver diseases. The principles of NAFLD therapy target IR: the key point of MS. As the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays a central role in IR, and subsequently in NAFLD and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), an attempt to block the deleterious effects of RAS overexpression seems a logical target. While many potential therapies tested in NASH target only the consequences of this condition, or try to “get rid” of excessive fat, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) could act as an elegant tool for adequate correction of the various imbalances that act in harmony in NASH/NAFLD. Indeed, by inhibiting RAS we can improve the intracellular insulin signaling pathway, better control adipose tissue proliferation and adipokine production, and produce more balanced local and systemic levels of various cytokines. At the same time, by controlling the local RAS in the liver we might be able to prevent at least fibrosis and also slow down the vicious cycle that links steatosis to necroinflammation. By targeting the pancreatic effects of angiotensin we should be able to preserve an adequate insulin secretion and acquire a better metabolic balance. In our opinion there are two major advantages of ARBs that make them a possible therapeutic option for treating NASH and MS: their specific antihypertensive effect, and their impact on liver fibrosis. In light of this, and based on the current evidence (including existent human studies), we can speculate that some ARBs like telmisartan, candesartan, and losartan can be beneficial in treating NASH/NAFLD and its consequences, and further larger controlled clinical trials will bring consistent data into this field.     

Hyponatremia in a pediatric stroke patient: syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion or cerebral salt wasting?

OBJECTIVE: To determine the potential role of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) in the pathogenesis of cerebral salt wasting. DESIGN: Clinical case report. SETTING: Regional pediatric intensive care unit. PATIENT: A 3-yr-old boy with a cerebral infarct secondary to traumatic carotid artery dissection who developed hyponatremia associated with weight loss and excessive renal sodium excretion on the sixth day after hospitalization. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Plasma concentrations of ANP, BNP, antidiuretic hormone, and renin were determined serially and compared with concentrations measured in a group of eight healthy children undergoing elective surgical procedures. Compared with controls, ANP and BNP plasma concentrations on the eighth day after hospitalization were increased 1.9-fold and 7.7-fold, respectively. Thereafter, the course of ANP and BNP paralleled that of sodium and H2O excretion and remained elevated until the 14th (BNP) and 16th (ANP) days after hospitalization. Serum antidiuretic hormone and renin concentrations were within normal ranges during the entire observation period. CONCLUSION: Cerebral salt wasting is associated with elevated plasma concentrations of ANP and BNP. Natriuretic peptides may play a role in the pathogenesis of this syndrome.