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阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停综合征(obstructive sleep apneasyndrome,OSAS)是由于睡眠中周期性上气道塌陷,导致呼吸暂停和(或)通气不足,引起复杂多变的低氧血症、高碳酸血症、跨胸压的异常改变及频繁的微觉醒,影响到全身多个系统或器官,其中最为突出和严重的是心脑血管并发症。因此,OS     

睡眠呼吸暂停综合征和冠心病的关系

目的睡眠呼吸暂停综合征与冠心病关系密切,但国内尚缺乏有关的流行病学资料,本研究旨在了解国人冠心病(coronary heart disease,CAD)合并睡眠呼吸暂停综合征(sleep apnea syn- drome,SAS)的发生率及其相关关系。方法对2004年10月至2005年3月以胸痛待查或冠心病收入我巾心拟行冠状动脉造影的所有221例患者进行睡眠呼吸监测,及抽血化验血脂、尿酸、C-反应蛋白等,对其结果进行分析。结果共204例患者加入研究,冠状动脉造影确诊CAD154例,其中单支病变38例,双支病变47例,三支病变54例,左主干病变15例;冠状动脉造影确诊CAD的患者合并SAS 86例,发生率为55.8%;非CAD组50例,合并SAS 22例,发生率为44.0%。CAD组SAS发生率明显高于非CAD组(P<0.05)。Logistic回归分析显示校正年龄、吸烟、高血压等因素后,睡眠呼吸暂停指数(AHI)≥20的患者合并CAD的危险是AHI<20患若的7.7倍(P=0.017)。结论CAD合并SAS的发生率高,SAS是CAD可能的危险因素,对CAD患者应进行睡眠呼吸监测,及早诊断将有利于冠心病的治疗。     

The potential benefits of treatment of sleep apnea in heart failure

At least half of patients with heart failure (HF) suffer from sleep apnea. Growing evidence suggests that there may be a strong pathophysiological link between chronic HF and sleep apnea due to nocturnal oxygen desaturation and sympathetic activation. It seems that sleep apnea contributes to systolic and diastolic HF, reduced left and right ventricular function, and arrhythmia (e.g. atrial fibrillation, bradycardia, or ventricular ectopy). Therefore, treatment of sleep apnea might alleviate cardiac symptoms and improve cardiac function. Nevertheless, the exact role of long-term treatment of sleep apnea in HF patients remains to be elucidated, as important clinical endpoints (e.g mortality) have been assessed in only a few studies. Heart Fail Monit 2008;5(4):106-11.     

Prospective study of obstructive sleep apnea and incident coronary heart disease and heart failure

Background-Clinic-based observational studies in men have reported that obstructive sleep apnea is associated with an increased incidence of coronary heart disease.The objective of this study was to assess the relation of obstructive sleep apnea to incident coronary heart disease and heart failure in a general community sample of adult men and women.Methods and Results-A total of 1927 men and 2495 women ≥40 years of age and free of coronary heart disease and heart failure at the time of baseline polysomnography were followed up for a median of 8.7 years in this prospective longitudinal epidemiological study.After adjustment for multiple risk factors,obstructive sleep apnea was a significant predictor of incident coronary heart disease(myocardial infarction,revascularization procedure,or coronary heart disease death)only in men ≤70 years of age(adjusted hazard ratio 1.10 [95% confidence interval 1.00 to 1.21] per 10-unit increase in apnea-hypopnea index [AHI])but not in older men or in women of any age.Among men 40 to 70 years old,those with AHI ≥30 were 68% more likely to develop coronary heart disease than those with AHI <5.Obstructive sleep apnea predicted incident heart failure in men but not in women(adjusted hazard ratio 1.13 [95% confidence interval 1.02 to 1.26] per 10-unit increase in AHI).Men with AHI ≥30 were 58% more likely to develop heart failure than those with AHI <5.Conclusions-Obstructive sleep apnea is associated with an increased risk of incident heart failure in community-dwelling middle-aged and older men;its association with incident coronary heart disease in this sample is equivocal.     

睡眠呼吸暂停综合征、炎症反应及冠心病

睡眠呼吸暂停综合征是一种常见的睡眠呼吸紊乱疾病,以反复的低氧为主要表现,容易引起一系列心脑血管并发症,以冠心病最为常见.其引发冠心病的机制较为复杂,炎症因素在其中起了重要作用.     

Obstructive sleep apnea and heart failure

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) exerts several effects that may be particularly deleterious in patients with heart failure (HF). OSA should be considered especially in HF patients who are obese or have the metabolic syndrome, systemic hypertension, or pulmonary hypertension. HF patients in whom OSA is suspected should undergo a full evaluation by a sleep specialist, including a polysomnogram, to diagnose OSA and differentiate this disease from central sleep apnea. Those found to have OSA should then receive continuous positive airway pressure and/or other interventions, and standard disease management strategies should be used to maximize compliance. Those who cannot tolerate continuous positive airway pressure may be candidates for mandibular advancement devices or surgical therapies including tracheostomy. Standard HF medications should be used to treat HF, and optimization of fluid balance may help minimize OSA severity. However, it is still unknown whether treatment of OSA in HF patients will reduce hospitalizations or mortality.     

Diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea in adults

The diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) requires the combined assessment of relevant clinical features and the objective demonstration of abnormal breathing during sleep, and current evidence indicates that attempts to base the diagnosis of the clinical syndrome on either aspect alone are unreliable. The present review discusses the clinical assessment of patients with suspected OSAS and also the potential added value of structured questionnaires and clinical prediction models that seek to improve the diagnostic value of clinical assessment from the formalized evaluation of selected clinical features. While the traditional "gold standard" for objective assessment is laboratory-based polysomnography, there is growing evidence that limited sleep studies focused on respiratory and cardiac variables are adequate in most cases, and are particularly suited to home-based assessment. The choice between home versus sleep laboratory studies should be decided by taking into account resource limitations and the clinical index of suspicion for OSAS. At present, patients with either a low or high clinical index of suspicion for OSAS appear most suited to home-based investigation, whereas those with intermediate levels of clinical suspicion, or who present with atypical clinical features, may best be assessed by full polysomnographic studies in the first instance.     

Treatment of sleep apnea in heart failure

Obstructive and central sleep apnea are common in heart failure, and may participate in its progression by exposing the heart to intermittent hypoxia, increased preload and afterload, sympathetic activation, and vascular endothelial dysfunction. Treatment of sleep apnea in patients with heart failure may reverse these detrimental effects, in addition to alleviating symptoms of sleep apnea. In patients with heart failure and obstructive sleep apnea, short-term randomized trials have demonstrated that continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) improves cardiac function, and lowers sympathetic activity and blood pressure. However, there are no data on whether treating obstructive sleep apnea in patients with heart failure improves morbidity and mortality. Various treatments have been tested in heart failure patients with central sleep apnea, particularly oxygen and CPAP. Both reduce the frequency of central respiratory events, and lower sympathetic activity. In addition, CPAP improves cardiac function. However, the largest randomized trial did not demonstrate any beneficial effect of CPAP on the rate of mortality and cardiac transplantation (32 vs. 32 events in the control and treatment groups, respectively; p=0.54), but ultimately lacked power to conclude with certainty whether CPAP has an effect on morbidity and mortality in such patients. Thus, although there are data to indicate that treating both obstructive and central sleep apnea in patients with heart failure improves cardiovascular function, larger randomized trials involving interventions such as oxygen, CPAP, or other forms of positive airway pressure will be required to determine whether treating these sleep-related breathing disorders reduces clinically important outcomes such as morbidity and mortality.     

慢性心力衰竭患者中枢性睡眠呼吸暂停的诊治进展

慢性充血性心力衰竭(CHF)是一种复杂的临床综合征,发病率和病死率都极高.心力衰竭患者中睡眠呼吸障碍的发病率极高,对心力衰竭患者的预后产生极为不利的影响.陈-施呼吸(CSR)是最常见的一种中枢性呼吸暂停,但关于该综合征的确切的诊断标准、减少CSR的最有效方法、以及这是否能够降低CHF的致残率和病死率等方面,存在许多不同观点.另外,究竟CSR只是反应CHF严重程度的一个参数,还是一种可导致远期不良预后的严重并发症,亦尚存争议.本文对慢性心力衰竭患者的中枢性睡眠呼吸暂停的诊治进展进行了简要综述.     

The effect of successful heart transplant treatment of heart failure on central sleep apnea

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Central sleep apnea (CSA) associated with Cheyne-Stokes respiration in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) is thought to be an acquired pattern of respiratory control instability related, at least in part, to elevated sympathetic nervous system activity. The effect of restoring heart function to normal with heart transplantation in patients with CHF and CSA has only been reported within weeks of the transplant and with varying results. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the impact of successful heart transplant on sympathetic nervous system activity and CSA severity in patients with CHF. DESIGN: Controlled prospective trial. SETTING: University hospital. PATIENTS: Twenty-two patients with CHF (13 patients with CSA, and 9 patients with no sleep-disordered breathing [SDB]). INTERVENTIONS AND MEASUREMENTS: Polysomnography, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), and overnight urinary norepinephrine excretion (UNE) were measured before and > 6 months after successful heart transplantation. RESULTS: In the CSA group, there was a fall in apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) [mean +/- SD, 28 +/- 15 to 7 +/- 6/h; p < 0.001] and UNE (48.1 +/- 30.9 to 6.1 +/- 4.8 nmol/mmol creatinine, p < 0.001) associated with normalization of LVEF (19.2 +/- 9.3% to 53.7 +/- 6.1%, p < 0.001) at 13.2 +/- 8.3 months following heart transplantation. Of the CSA group following transplantation, seven patients had no SDB (AHI < 5/h), three patients had persistent CSA (AHI, 12.3 +/- 0.9/h) and four patients acquired obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) [AHI, 11.2 +/- 7.4/h]. In comparison, none of the control group acquired CSA or OSA after transplantation. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that CSA may persist despite normalization of heart function and sympathetic nerve activity.     

Diagnosis of sleep apnea in patients with stable chronic heart failure using a portable sleep test diagnostic device

Purpose

ApneaLink is a portable device for the screening of sleep apnea, a prevalent and underdiagnosed comorbidity in heart failure patients. A prospective cross-sectional study in patients with chronic heart failure was carried out to assess the sensitivity and specificity of apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) measurements using ApneaLink against the standard polysomnography test.

Methods

Adult patients with a prior hospitalization in an acute heart failure hospital unit were recruited for the study. All participants were tested for sleep apnea using ApneaLink and polysomnography simultaneously during an overnight stay at a sleep laboratory. Global sleep apnea was evaluated according to the AHI, which was analyzed and compared. Subpopulation comparison based on ejection fraction was not realized due to population size.

Results

Thirty-five patients with stable chronic heart failure completed the study (mean age 70.9?±?10.5 years and body mass index 30.0?±?4.7 kg/m²). Two patients were excluded due to insufficient study duration. ApneaLink had a sensitivity greater than 80% for all AHI measurements, and a specificity greater than 80% for all AHI measurements, except for AHI ≥?5 events/h (61.5%). The results showed higher sensitivities and specificities at AHI values of ≥?10 events/h (sensitivity 81.3% and specificity 84.2%) and ≥?15 events/h (sensitivity 83.3% and specificity 91.3%). Correlation analysis showed that AHI measurements using ApneaLink and polysomnography had a strong and significant correlation (r?=?0.794; P?<?0.001).

Conclusions

Our results suggest that ApneaLink could be used in clinical practice to identify heart failure patients with high (AHI ≥?15 events/h) and low (AHI <?5 events/h) probability of having sleep apnea, sparing the need for a diagnostic polysomnography and thus potentially impacting prognosis by providing a more cost-effective and timely diagnosis of this non-cardiac comorbidity.

     

Obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a common disorder associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke. As it is strongly associated with known cardiovascular risk factors, including obesity, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia, OSA is an independent risk factor for hypertension and has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of congestive cardiac failure, pulmonary hypertension, arrhythmias, and atherosclerosis. Obesity is strongly linked to an increased risk of OSA, and weight loss can reduce the severity of OSA. The current standard treatment for OSA-nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)-eliminates apnea and the ensuing acute hemodynamic changes during sleep. Long-term CPAP treatment studies have shown a reduction in nocturnal cardiac ischemic episodes and improvements in daytime blood pressure levels and left ventricular function. Despite the availability of effective therapy, OSA remains an underdiagnosed and undertreated condition. A lack of physician awareness is one of the primary reasons for this deficit in diagnosis and treatment.     

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停与心血管疾病

本文分析关于阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停与心血管疾病之间的关系、发生发展机制的最新进展,阐述对阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停合并心血管疾病的患者行经鼻气道持续正压通气治疗能给患者心血管疾病的治疗、预后、康复和生活质量带来益处.本篇综述的目的 在于引起医务工作者对阻塞性呼吸暂停与心血管疾病的关系的重视,从而服务于临床.     

Obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a sleep-disordered breathing condition, which is increasingly being recognized as having wide-ranging pathophysiological effects on multiple organ systems. Although multiple factors affect the incidence and severity of OSA, male sex and obesity seem to play an influential role. The apnea-ventilation cycle, characterized by abnormalities in gas exchange, exaggerated respiratory effort and frequent arousals, has been shown to have deleterious effects on circulatory hemodynamics, the autonomic milieu, hormonal balance, inflammatory and coagulation cascades, endothelial function, and the redox state, with potential cardiovascular significance. Consequently, OSA is being increasingly implicated in a multitude of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) such as hypertension, congestive heart failure, atrial fibrillation, stroke, coronary artery disease, pulmonary hypertension, and metabolic syndrome. The strength of association for individual CVD is varied, and outcomes of clinical studies are conflicting. In addition, obesity, which is closely linked to both OSA and CVD, makes it harder to ascertain the independent role of OSA on CVD. Although available evidence is inconclusive, there is an increasing recognition of the direct role for OSA in CVD. Similarly, although several studies have demonstrated the cardiovascular benefits of OSA treatment, further studies are needed to confirm this.     

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停综合征与冠心病相关性的研究进展

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停综合征(obstructive sleep apnea syndrome,OSAS)是一种发病率高、具有潜在危险性的疾病.近年研究显示OSAS与冠心病(coronary heart disease,CHD)关系密切,是CHD的独立危险因素,充分认识OSAS引起和促进CHD的发病机制,可以为OSAS相关CHD的防治提供重要的理论依据和新思路.     

The appearance of central sleep apnea after treatment of obstructive sleep apnea

Patients with a primary diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea frequently demonstrate central sleep apnea that emerges during treatment with CPAP. Although a number of mechanisms for this finding have been hypothesized, the pathophysiology is not definitively known. Controversy exists as to whether the concomitant appearance of the two phenomena represents a distinct meaningful entity. Regardless, the coincidence of these diseases may have important clinical implications. Herein, we review the proposed mechanisms for obstructive sleep apnea complicated by central sleep apnea. Future research is needed to elucidate the relative importance and susceptibility to intervention of the various pathophysiologic mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon, and whether a treatment approach distinct from that of pure obstructive apnea is justified.From the Emory University School of Medicine (Drs Hoffman and Schulman), Atlanta, GA.Correspondence to: David A. Schulman, MD, MPH, FCCP, Emory University School of Medicine, 615 Michael St, Ste 205, Atlanta, GA 30322; e-mail: daschul@emory.eduFinancial/nonfinancial disclosures: The authors have reported to CHEST that no potential conflicts of interest exist with any companies/organizations whose products or services may be discussed in this article.Reproduction of this article is prohibited without written permission from the American College of Chest Physicians. See online for more details.