Mesenteric vascular disease: a review of diagnostic methods and therapies

Mesenteric vascular disease is a relatively rare disease; however the morbidity and mortality are significant. Improved diagnosis and treatment of mesenteric obstructive arterial disease and its complications have occurred. Biplanar angiography of the mesenteric arteries remains the best method of diagnosing mesenteric vascular diseases, though duplex sonography of the mesenteric arteries appears to be a valuable screening tool. Magnetic resonance angiography has the potential to improve on the diagnostic accuracy. Mesenteric artery reconstructive surgery remains the treatment of choice. Newer surveillance techniques such as tonometry may enhance perioperative monitoring and consequently improve the results of mesenteric artery reconstructive surgery. Aggressive support medical therapy plays a significant role in the treatment and reduces patient morbidity and mortality in carefully selected cases. There remains a dearth of prospective controlled trials in patients with this condition.     

急性肠系膜上静脉血栓的进阶式诊治

急性肠系膜上静脉血栓（ASMVT）是一种少见的胃肠道缺血性疾病。随着血管增强CT、血管造影以及腹腔镜探查等诊断技术的不断进步,其发病率不断提高,更多患者能够获得早期诊断。抗凝、介入技术以及损伤控制性手术的综合应用不断提升着临床疗效。当前,诊断技术主要为血管增强CT,同时以血管造影对血栓范围及程度进行评估,必要时行腹腔镜直接评估肠道缺血情况;治疗则以全身抗凝为基石,局部介入导管抗凝和溶栓使血管再通为主要治疗核心,辅以肠系膜动脉解痉及多种腔内操作治疗,必要时行坏死肠管手术切除加两端造口或腹腔开放等损伤控制性手术;形成ASMVT进阶式诊治模式,有望能进一步提高临床整体疗效。本文将该治疗模式的最新研究进展作一综述。     

Farbduplexsonographie bei chronischer und akuter Mesenterialarterienischämie

Background

Only a few articles have been published on the importance of duplex sonography for acute and chronic ischemia of the mesenteric artery and the criteria for stenosis show discrepancies.

Material and methods

A critical review of the literature between 1985 and 2013 on the validity of duplex sonography for acute and chronic ischemia of the mesenteric artery was carried out. A sonographic investigation concept was developed by which prognosis relevant, acute mesenteric artery stem occlusions can be diagnosed without time delay.

Results

Despite different criteria for stenosis, e.g. peak systolic velocity (PSV), end diastolic velocity (EDV) and the PSV/EDV ratio given in the literature, evaluation of the PSV appears to be the most accurate method. Although there is a lack of publications on acute mesenteric artery ischemia with adequate study design, our own concept of duplex sonography for evaluation over the length of the mesenteric artery stem with optimal instrument adjustment and spectral analysis of the bifurcation of the superior mesenteric artery, is an efficient time-saving method (in the prognosis-relevant early stage) in the diagnosis of ischemia of mesenteric artery and for avoidance of extensive intestinal necrosis. The diagnosis can be made without delay in more than 80 % of cases. When the findings are inconclusive the diagnosis must be rapidly confirmed by computed tomography angiography.

Conclusion

The possibilities of duplex sonography as a universally deployable method (e.g. lack of side effects and spatially flexible) in the time-efficient diagnostics of acute and chronic mesenteric artery ischemia have so far been underestimated in the clinical routine.     

Magnetic resonance imaging of acute occlusive intestinal ischemia

The mortality of acute superior mesenteric artery occlusion and mesenteric infarction remains high, in part because of the failure to identify the patients with the disorder. A reliable noninvasive diagnostic study may facilitate earlier definitive diagnosis and therapy. Proton magnetic resonance imaging may offer a noninvasive diagnostic alternative. We examined this possibility by using an experimental rabbit model of acute superior mesenteric artery occlusion in this study. Animals were scanned 1 hour after the ischemic insult. Relative intestinal wall signal intensity was increased in experimental (ischemic) animals when compared to sham operated controls on T2-weighted (4.35 +/- 0.5 vs 2.57 +/- 0.31, p less than 0.02) and proton spin density-weighted images (2.1 +/- 0.2 vs 1.4 +/- 0.21, p less than 0.05). Significant increases in image intensity were found on T2-weighted and proton spin density images when compared to control animals. Differences between groups could be further highlighted after the administration of a paramagnetic contrast agent gadolinium diethyltriamine pentacetic acid on T1-weighted images. The data from this preliminary study demonstrate that proton magnetic resonance imaging may be used to discriminate between ischemic and nonischemic small intestine. This noninvasive tool may someday become clinically useful to enhance our diagnostic capabilities when a diagnosis of acute superior mesenteric artery occlusion is being entertained.     

Mesenteric vascular occlusion resulting in intestinal necrosis in children

PURPOSE: The records of 4 patients who had necrotic bowel secondary to acute mesenteric vascular occlusion affecting various levels of mesenteric vasculature were reviewed to determine the clinical manifestations, diagnostic investigations, predisposing factors, complications, and outcome of mesenteric vascular thrombosis in children. METHODS: The medical records of the patients (3 boys, 1 girl) treated between 1981 and 1996, inclusive, for bowel infarction secondary to mesenteric vascular thrombosis, were reviewed with regard to signs and symptoms, laboratory tests, radiological investigations, surgical findings, histopathologic examinations, and outcome. RESULTS: The ages of the patients ranged between 1 and 14 years with a mean age of 8.2 years. Initial symptoms, present in all patients, were abdominal pain, abdominal distension, and tenderness. Laboratory and radiological findings including abdominal radiographs and abdominal ultrasonography were nondiagnostic. Selective superior mesenteric angiography showed complete obliteration of the superior mesenteric artery with absence of venous return in 1 case. Three patients with massive intestinal necrosis died of multiorgan failure or the complications of short bowel syndrome. Histological examination of the resected intestinal segments showed the typical findings of polyarteritis nodosa in 2 patients. One patient had a previous history of right femoral vein thrombosis, whereas 1 patient had no known underlying disorders predisposing vascular thrombosis. CONCLUSIONS: Mesenteric vascular occlusion is a rare but serious disease leading to death in children. The patients present with similar clinical signs, most frequent and important are acute abdominal pain, vomiting, and distension. Mesenteric vascular occlusion is a rare cause of acute abdomen in childhood, which requires urgent diagnosis and intervention. In suspected mesenteric vascular insufficiency, angiography should be performed followed by intraarterial thrombolytic infusion therapy in selected cases. When intestinal infarction is suspected, immediate surgical resection of compromised bowel is necessary with appropriate postoperative anticoagulation or treatment of any underlying disease.     

Bildgebung im Rahmen der Notfalldiagnostik bei mesenterialer Ischämie

Diagnostic imaging in patients with suspected acute mesenteric ischemia is started with abdominal ultrasound including duplex sonography of the mesenteric vessels. Despite low sensitivity even in experienced hands, ultrasound is used because operative treatment can be initiated without further imaging if a positive diagnosis is made. Plain abdominal X-rays are usually unspecific in acute mesenteric ischemia and are mainly used to rule out differential diagnoses. Spiral CT (ideally using a multislice technique) can accurately demonstrate morphology of the arterial and venous mesenteric vessels, changes in the bowel wall, and additional mesenteric or peritoneal findings. Therefore, CT has the potential for diagnosis of mesenteric ischemia on a pathological basis. Furthermore, CT is successfully used to confirm or exclude most other causes of acute abdominal conditions. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be as accurate as CT for the diagnosis of acute mesenteric ischemia and its differential diagnoses. However, MRI is not widely available and therefore not used as an emergency imaging modality so far. Catheter angiography remains the diagnostic gold standard for mesenteric vasculature when spiral CT is not available.     

Ultraschalldiagnostik in der Gefäßchirurgie

Ultrasound diagnosis of vessels has emerged as the diagnostic method setting the course in all areas of everyday angiological and vascular surgery. As part of staged diagnostics of peripheral arterial occlusive disease (PAOD), duplex sonography has a key position in treatment planning before invasive procedures. Duplex sonography exhibits sensitivities and specificities of more than 90% in the diagnostic work-up and grading of arteriosclerotic stenoses and occlusions. It is the method used for precise localization in the iliofemoral-popliteal segment to determine appropriate treatment. In the femoropopliteal segment surgery can be planned without previous angiography; otherwise angiography is only necessary in choosing the surgical connecting segment. Duplex sonography is the diagnostic method of choice for inflammatory and non-arteriosclerotic vessel diseases. Sonography is a valid method in the diagnostics, screening, and treatment planning of abdominal and retroperitoneal vascular diseases relevant to vascular surgery (aortic aneurysm, renal artery stenosis, mesenteric artery stenosis) as well as monitoring the course after reconstruction and to a limited extent also after stent implantation for an aortic aneurysm.     

Local thrombolytic treatment for renal arterial embolism

OBJECTIVE: To determine the utility of local thrombolysis in the treatment of acute renal arterial occlusion. METHODS: We used local thrombolytic treatment in a female patient, aged 76, with 72 h of anuria, right lumbar and flank pain. She had a 3-year history of ischemic heart disease and atrial fibrillation controlled with digital treatment. Also, she was nephrectomized on the left side 33 years ago for lithiasic pyonephrosis. A normal right urinary tract was demonstrated with ultrasound examination, KUB radiography and retrograde pyelography. The next step was diagnostic abdominal angiography and local thrombolytic treatment with streptokinase. RESULT: Thrombolysis with streptokinase was successful following 72 h of renal artery occlusion. After 24 months the patient is doing well. CONCLUSION: Local intra-arterial thrombolysis is the treatment of choice in renal artery occlusion.     

THE EARLY DIAGNOSIS OF ACUTE OCCLUSIVE MESENTERIC ISCHAEMIA: EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

The diagnosis of acute superior mesenteric artery occlusion In the dog has been achieved in every case by Isotope scanning ol the abdomen using technetlum-iabelled red cells or technetlum-labelled human serum albumin. The white cell count is also significantly elevated, but the changes in the levels of the enzymes CPK, LDH, AST and serum amylase are not specific for acute mesenteric Ischaemia. In the human the presence of a normal gut circulation can be demonstrated by Isotope scanning provided that the patient Is not severely shocked. The presence of a normal gut circulation as shown on the scintigram conclusively eliminates the possibility of acute main trunk occlusion of the superior mesenteric artery. This should be of help in differentiating acute occlusive mesenteric Ischaemia from other causes of the acute abdomen. Abdominal scintiscanning Is complementary to angiography, which still remains the most precise means of diagnosing acute mesenteric ischaemia. Although the abdominal scintigram is more limited in Its application and Is not as accurate as angiography, it Is quicker to perform, non-Invasive, and entirely safe. Abdominal scintiscanning is an excellent screening test to be used in patients suspected of suffering from acute occlusive mesenteric Ischaemia.     

Acute mesenteric ischaemia.

The experience of acute mesenteric ischaemia at St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, has been reviewed over 17 years. The mortality remains appallingly high. This applies particularly to those patients who had thrombosis of the superior mesenteric artery, amongst whom the mortality in this series was 97%. The mortality was slightly less in the group suffering from embolic occlusion of the superior mesenteric artery (66%), and in those suffering from thrombosis of the superior mesenteric vein (60%). A mortality of 66% was also found in patients suffering from non-occlusive gut ischaemia. Delay in diagnosis accounted for this high mortality. Early diagnosis is all-important, and this depends on the performance of mesenteric angiography in any patient suspected of having mesenteric ischaemia. Appropriate surgery may then be carried out in the occlusive group and supportive treatment, including intraarterial papaverine infusion, given to those with non-occlusive ischaemia. There is a pressing need for simple non-invasive tests to segregate those patients suffering from acute mesenteric ischaemia from those whose acute abdomen is due to some other cause.     

Diagnosis and management of acute mesenteric ischemia

The prevalence of significant splanchnic arterial stenoses is increasing, but remains mostly asymptomatic due to abundant collateral circulation. Acute insufficiency of mesenteric arterial blood flow accounts for 60 to 70% of cases of mesenteric ischemia and results mostly from a superior mesenteric embolus. Despite major advances have been achieved in understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of bowel ischemia, its prognosis remains dismal with mortality rates about 60%. The diagnosis of acute mesenteric ischemia depends upon a high clinical suspicion, especially in patients with known risk factors. Rapid diagnosis is essential to prevent intestinal infarction. However, early signs and symptoms of mesenteric ischemia are non specific, and definitive diagnosis often requires radiologic examinations. Early and liberal implementation of angiography has been the major advance over the past 30 years which allowed increasing diagnostic accuracy of acute mesenteric ischemia. CT and MR-based angiographic techniques have emerged as alternatives less invasive and more accurate to analyse splanchnic vessels and evaluate bowel infarction. The goal of treatment of patients with acute mesenteric ischemia is to restore intestinal oxygenation as quickly as possible after initial management that includes rapid hemodynamic monitoring and support. Surgery should not be delayed in patients suspected of having intestinal necrosis.     

ACUTE MESENTERIC ISCHÆMIA

The experience of acute mesenteric ischæmia at St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, has been reviewed over 17 years. The mortality remains appallingly high. This applies particularly to those patients who had thrombosis of the superior mesenteric artery, amongst whom the mortality in this series was 97%. The mortality was slightly less in the group suffering from embolic occlusion of the superior mesenteric artery (66%), and in those suffering from thrombosis of the superior mesenteric vein (60%). A mortality of 66% was also found in patients suffering from non-occlusive gut ischæmia. Delay in diagnosis accounted for this high mortality. Early diagnosis is all-important, and this depends on the performance of mesenteric angiography in any patient suspected of having mesenteric ischæmia. Appropriate surgery may then be carried out in the occlusive group and supportive treatment, including intraarterial papaverine infusion, given to those with non-occlusive ischæmia. There is a pressing need for simple non-invasive tests to segregate those patients suffering from acute mesenteric ischæmia from those whose acute abdomen is due to some other cause.     

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目的 探讨诊治急性肠系膜上静脉血栓形成的有效方法。方法 回顾性分析１９７８年８月至１９９９年８月收治的１９例急性肠系膜上静脉血栓形成的诊断和治疗方法。结果 １９９５年前诊治的１２例中有５例死亡,１９９５年后行不同长度肠切除术＋外周抗凝治疗及经肠系膜上动脉插管持续应用尿激酶溶栓治疗,７例病人的存活。结论 急性肠系膜上静脉血栓形成应尽早诊治,选择性肠系膜上动脉造影并留置导管持续给予溶栓治疗是一具有诊断     

The early diagnosis of acute occlusive mesenteric ischaemia: experimental results and clinical applications.

The diagnosis of acute superior mesenteric artery occlusion in the dog has been achieved in every case by isotope scanning of the abdomen using technetium-labelled red cells or technetium-labelled human serum albumin. The white cell count is also significantly elevated, but the changes in the levels of the enzymes CPK, LDH, AST and serum amylase are not specific for actue mesenteric ischaemia. In the human the presence of a normal gut circulation can be demonstrated by isotope scanning provided that the patient is not severely shocked. The presence of a normal gut circulation as shown on the scintigram conclusively eliminates the possibility of acute main trunk occlusion of the superior mesenteric artery. This should be of help in differentiating acute occulusive mesenteric ischaemia from other causes of the acute abdomen. Abdominal scintiscanning is complementary to angiography, which still remains the most precise means of diagnosing acute mesenteric ischaemia. Although the abdominal scintigram is more limited in its application and is not as accurate as angiography, it is quicker to perform, non-invasive, and entirely safe. Abdominal scintiscanning is an excellent screening test to be used in patients suspected of suffering from acute occlusive mesenteric ischaemia.     

Comparison of selective internal iliac pharmaco-angiography, penile brachial index and duplex sonography with pulsed Doppler analysis for the evaluation of vasculogenic (arteriogenic) impotence

Between July 1987 and February 1988 selective internal iliac angiography was performed before and after intracavernous injection of papaverine plus phentolamine in 43 patients with erectile dysfunction. In 63% of the patients stenosis or occlusion of the pudendal artery was found. The penile brachial index was calculated and duplex sonography with pulsed Doppler analysis was performed in 23 patients. Angiography and penile brachial index correlated in only 39% of the patients, whereas selective internal iliac angiography and duplex sonography correlated in 91% (21 of 23). In 2 patients duplex sonography with pulsed Doppler analysis rendered better information about penile arterial perfusion than did angiography.     

肠系膜静脉血栓的介入治疗

目的探讨经肠系膜上动脉灌注罂粟碱和经皮经肝肠系膜静脉取栓和／或溶栓联合治疗肠系膜静脉血栓（MVT）的价值。方法回顾分析北大三院经介入诊治的9例MVT。9例患者均行血管造影检查和超声检查，其中5例行CT检查，2例行MR检查。患者从就诊到明确诊断接受介入治疗的时间间隔为15～168小时。明确诊断MVT后即经外周静脉给予肝素抗凝治疗；9例MVT均行经肠系膜动脉灌注罂粟碱治疗，其中8例同时行经皮经肝门静脉、肠系膜上静脉取栓和溶栓治疗。2例怀疑肠坏死介入治疗后行外科肠切除术。结果本组9例MVT中2例血栓局限在肠系膜上静脉内；7例血栓延及门静脉或脾静脉。9例患者7例治愈；1例不明原因猝死；1例因门脉高压行门腔静脉分流术后肝功衰竭死亡。结论经肠系膜动脉灌注罂粟碱联合经皮经肝门静脉、肠系膜静脉取栓和／或溶栓是治疗MVT的有效方法。     

Percutaneous angioplasty of the superior gluteal artery for buttock claudication: a report of seven cases and literature review

BACKGROUND: Buttock claudication due to stenosis or occlusion of the superior gluteal artery is infrequent. The recent development of noninvasive gluteal duplex scanning, combined with aortoiliac angiography using oblique projections and the availability of low-profile devices for percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA), led us to review our recent experience concerning the diagnosis and mid-term results of PTA for superior gluteal artery stenosis or occlusion. METHODS: The files of all patients who had been treated in our department by PTA for superior gluteal artery stenosis or occlusion with buttock claudication were analyzed retrospectively, and any associated arterial lesions, morbidity, restenosis, or recurrent buttock claudication were noted. Outcomes were compared with published reports. RESULTS: Retrospective review identified six patients (5 men, 1 woman; mean age, 64 years) with seven cases of buttock claudication (1 bilateral localization) who had undergone PTA within the past 2 years. There was no case of isolated buttock claudication. Buttock claudication was associated with impotence, thigh claudication, or calf claudication in seven cases. Gluteal duplex scans were performed for three of the patients diagnosed with two stenoses and one occlusion. Aortoiliac angiography revealed five superior gluteal artery stenoses and two occlusions. PTA without stenting was successful in all cases, without morbidity or mortality. During a mean follow-up of 13 months, restenosis occurred in one patient. A repeat PTA without stenting was successful, with resolution of the buttock claudication. CONCLUSIONS: Buttock claudication due to superior gluteal artery stenosis is probably underestimated when gluteal duplex scanning and aortoiliac angiography with oblique projections are not performed. PTA gives good results, and the procedure can be repeated should restenosis occur.     

Antegrade aortomesenteric revascularisation originating from the supracoeliac aortic segment--a promising surgical option in chronic ischaemia of the visceral arteries

INTRODUCTION: Ischaemia of the visceral arteries is considered to be an extraordinary challenge in the interdisciplinary therapeutic management. AIM AND METHOD: Using a case series of patients with chronic ischaemia of the visceral arteries, our diagnostic and therapeutic experience was analysed with regard to postoperative quality of life (increase of body weight, frequency in daily diarrhoea), perioperative morbidity and hospital mortality in dependence on the type of surgical reconstruction of the visceral arteries. RESULTS: During a time period of 2 years, 3 patients (male/female=1:2; mean age, 61.7 years) underwent surgical interventions on the visceral arteries from a total of 1118 vascular interventions (main indication revealed by colonoscopy and pathohistology of mucosal biopsy: ischaemic colitis). In all cases, symptomatology was affected by abdominal angina. Duplex sonography, angiography, and multislice CT scan revealed the combination of an occlusion of the coeliac trunk and of the superior mesenteric artery by atherosclerosis in 2 cases. In the remaining case, there was an isolated occlusion at the origin of the superior mesenteric artery. For revascularisation, the aortomesenteric reconstruction was subdivided according to the: i) target vessel: -combination of revascularised common hepatic artery and superior mesenteric artery (n=1) with an autologous Y-vein bypass ("reversed technique"), -exclusive revascularisation of the superior mesenteric artery (n=2)-prosthetic bypass; ii) origin of the bypass: -from the supracoeliac aortic segment (antegrade) n=3 (primarily in patients 1 and 3; as a redo operation in patient 2); -from the infrarenal segment (retrograde) n=1 (initial surgical intervention in patient 2) using an autologous venous bypass. In all cases, a significant improvement of the quality of life was observed as indicated by an increase of body weight (n=3; +no further abdominal angina) and primary wound healing in all 3 cases (hospital mortality, 0). CONCLUSION: Chronic ischaemia of the visceral arteries is characterised by an increasing incidence and a stealthy onset and requires an interdisciplinary approach to find the correct diagnosis using all available diagnostic procedures including sufficient periodic follow-up investigations. We favour the antegrade aortomesenteric revascularisation from the supracoeliac aortic segment as a promising surgical option in chronic ischaemia of visceral arteries.     

The acute mesenteric ischemia - not understood or incurable?

PURPOSE: Despite surgical research and progress, the high mortality of acute intestinal ischemia seems to be improved insignificantly over the past fifty years. In this study we analyzed the specific diagnostic and therapeutic problems of the disease in order to improve further management of acute mesenteric ischemia. Methods: From 1979 until 2000 64 patients (female 31, male 33) with a mean age of 64 (30-89) years underwent operation for primary intestinal ischemia at our institution. All medical and surgical records and imaging studies were reviewed retrospectively. Follow up consisted of clinical examination and duplex sonography. RESULTS: Only in 26 patients (41 %) a preoperative diagnostic work-up including angiography 12 and CT 14 was performed, whereas in 42 cases the intestinal ischemia was diagnosed during surgical exploration. Intestine malperfusion was caused primarily by venous thrombosis in 9 cases (14 %) and by arterial occlusive disease in 55 cases (86 %). Arterial disorders consisted of arterial thrombosis in 19 cases (30 %), arterial embolism in 18 cases (28 %), aortic or mesenteric artery dissection in 10 cases (15 %), non occlusive disease (NOD) in 5 cases (8 %), trauma 3 cases (5 %). Five different therapeutic strategies were applied: group I: Intestinal resection: 24 patients, anastomotic insufficiency 5 (39 %), mortality 11 (46 %), group II: intestinal artery revascularization: 5 patients, secondary patency rate 80 %, mortality 40 %, GROUP III: Intestinal artery revacularization and perfusion with Ringer's solution: 11 patients, mortality 8 (73 %), group IV intestinal artery revascularization and intestinal resection: 3 patients, mortality 100 %, group V intestinal artery revascularization and perfusion and intestinal resection: 3 patients, mortality 33 %. A second look operation was performed in 29 cases (40 %) and displayed malperfusion in 72 %. Only 21 of 64 patients survived the acute intestinal ischemia (in hospital mortality was 67 %). Delayed diagnostic and operation caused higher mortality (interval 10 hours: mortality 59 %, interval 37 hours mortality; 71 %, p = 0,06). Follow up after 61 (4-72) months of 21 patients (100 %) could be achieved. Ten patients (48 %) had meanwhile died, 5 patients (50) % as consequence of mesenteric ischemia, the others of unrelated reasons. Eleven patients are still alive without clinical signs of intestinal ischemia. CONCLUSIONS: Early diagnosis before hospitalisation and in-hospital (arteriography) and operation are essential to improve the outcome of patients with acute intestinal ischemia. To avoid short bowel syndrome bowel resection should be combined with mesenteric revascularization. Resection of malperfused bowel should be done cautiously and should be followed automatically by second look operations. Special expertise and good team work of visceral and vascular surgeons are required to achieve better therapeutic results.