High density lipoproteins, genetic polymorphism for apo A-I and coronary artery disease

HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein A-I are associated with the development of coronary artery-disease (CAD). The presence of a PstI site polymorphism adjacent to the gene encoding apo A-I (known as P₂) has also been shown to be associated with CAD but this relationship is controversial. A case control study was conducted in an Australian population to re-examine whether the rare P₂ allele is associated with CAD. Data were derived from 159 cases of angiographically confirmed CAD and 99 healthy controls. The proportion of CAD cases carrying the P₂ allele did not differ significantly from controls (11% versus 9%). In a multiple logistic regression model controlling for the effects of age, country of birth, hypertension and hypotensive drugs, body mass index and lipid variables, the P₂ allele failed to predict significantly the presence of CAD (odds ratio 1.83; 95% confidence interval 0.65–5.19).     

Relationship of change in traditional cardiometabolic risk factors to change in coronary artery calcification among individuals with detectable subclinical atherosclerosis: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis

Background/Objectives

Data describing relationships between change in risk factors and coronary artery calcification (CAC) are lacking and could inform optimal cardiovascular disease prevention and treatment strategies. This study aimed to examine how change in traditional cardiometabolic risk factors related to change in CAC among individuals with detectable subclinical atherosclerosis.

Methods

Latent growth modeling was used to examine change in cardiometabolic risk factors (waist circumference, body mass index, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, high- and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose) related to change in CAC up to an average 4.9-year follow-up in a multi-ethnic cohort of 3398 asymptomatic individuals (57.8% men) who had detectable CAC (score > 0) at baseline, adjusting for baseline risk factor levels and CAC values, age, gender, race/ethnicity, smoking, family history of CVD, income, and use of antihypertensive, lipid-lowering, and glucose-lowering medications.

Results

Greater declines in blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol at follow-up were each associated with greater CAC progression. The observed inverse associations were attributable to greater CAC progression in participants taking antihypertensive and lipid-lowering drugs who, as expected, had declines in blood pressure and lipid levels, respectively. These inverse associations did not emerge in participants not taking these medications.

Conclusions

Among individuals with subclinical atherosclerosis, the unexpected inverse associations observed between change in blood pressure and lipid levels with CAC progression emphasize the importance of considering medication use, and, when feasible, the severity and duration of disease, in exploring associations between risk factors and CAC change.     

413例冠脉造影患者危险因素与冠脉病变的相关性研究

目的：探讨冠脉造影患者心血管危险因素与冠脉病变的相关性。方法：对于南方医院住院的2004年6月至2008年12月的413例行冠脉造影患者，采集病历数据，包括性别、年龄、体重指数、吸烟、高血压病、2型糖尿病、低密度脂蛋白-胆固醇（LDL-C）、高密度脂蛋白-胆固醇（HDL-C）、甘油三酯（TG）、尿酸（UA）、纤维蛋白原（Fg）、C-反应蛋白（CRP）及血清总胆红素（TBIL）等指标，冠脉造影通过直径目测法判断是否患冠心病。以单因素分析心血管危险因素与冠脉病变的关系，采用多因素Logistic回归分析筛选冠心病的独立相关危险因素。结果：（1）冠心病组患者男性比例、平均年龄、体重指数、LDL-C、TG、UA、CRP、Fg水平均显著高于非冠心病组，HDL-C水平显著低于非冠心病组，合并吸烟、高血压、糖尿病的病例显著多于非冠心病组（P〈0．05～〈0．01）；（2）Logistic回归分析显示，LDL-C、吸烟、糖尿病、高血压、体重指数、HDL-C、增龄、高尿酸入选回归方程（OR=3．559～1．003，P〈0．05～〈0．001），其中LDL-C为最显著的独立相关出素（OR：3．559，95％可信区间2．143～5．911，P〈0．001）。结论：LDL-C水平升高、吸烟、糖尿病、高血压、体重指数上升、HDH—C水平降低、增龄、高尿酸水平为冠心病的显著，独立相关因素。     

绝经期前女性冠心病患者冠脉病变特点及其危险因素分析

目的：观察绝经期前女性冠心病（CHD）患者冠状动脉病变特点及其危险因素。方法：入选绝经期前女性冠心病患者102例作为观察组,平均（48.2±7.5）岁,同时入选同年龄段CHD男性及非CHD女性患者各100例作为对照组,所有患者均行常规生化,心电图,超声心动图以及冠状动脉造影检查。结果：与CHD男性患者比较,绝经期前CHD女性有糖尿病史者比例明显升高（18.0%比27.5%）,而吸烟者（31.0%比12.7%）、患ST段抬高心肌梗死比例（15.0%比2.9%）明显减小,左室射血分数（LVEF）明显降低[（59.7±9.8）%比（52.8±8.5）%],C型病变（32.0%比56.9%）,Gensini积分≥40的病例（32.0%比44.1%）明显增多,P均〈0.05。与非CHD女性相比,高血压（32.0%比52.9%）,糖尿病患病率（9.0%比27.5%）及C反应蛋白水平[（11.35±8.35）mg/L比（16.40±6.49）mg/L]明显升高,LVEF[（59.9±5.3）%比（52.8±8.5）%]显著降低,P均〈0.05。结论：绝经期前女性冠心病患者冠状动脉病变较重,临床风险较高。     

冠心病危险因素在不同年龄组病人状况分析

目的　分析冠心病危险因素在不同年龄组病人中的状况 ,提供合理的防治措施。方法　对 1999年选择性冠状动脉造影的 5 6 4例住院病人 ,进行危险因素调查。结果　 5 0岁以上组在高血压及吸烟等方面存在统计学差异 (P=0 .0 0 0～ 0 .0 4 5 ) ,而 5 0岁以下组差异无统计学意义。 5 0岁以上及 5 0岁以下两组冠脉造影异常组进行吸烟年限及高血压病程t检验 ,结果差异有意义。Logistic回归分析示 ,吸烟及高血压是冠心病的独立危险因素 (P =0 .0 0 2 8～ 0 .0 30 8,OR =1.6 2 5 7～ 2 .92 39)。结论　年轻人与中老年人在冠心病的危险因素上可能存在差异。     

Regional differences in the prevalence of pre-eclampsia in relation to the risk factors for coronary artery disease in women in Finland.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of pre-eclampsia in Southern, Eastern, and Northern Finland, and the relationship between history of pre-eclampsia and maternal coronary artery disease (CAD) risk factors. METHODS AND RESULTS: Women aged 25-64 years, who participated in a cross-sectional population survey and had been pregnant (n=3650), were studied. The proportion of women who had ever had pre-eclampsia was lower in Southern (7.9%) compared with Northern Finland (13.9%) (P=0.001), but did not differ from Eastern Finland (11.1%). In the logistic regression model, the age-adjusted prevalence of pre-eclampsia was 1.92-fold in Northern (95% CI: 1.46-2.53, P<0.001) and 1.47-fold in Eastern Finland (95% CI: 1.11-1.96, P=0.008) compared with Southern Finland. The odds ratios (ORs) were 1.70 (95% CI: 1.21-2.38, P=0.002) and 1.16 (95% CI: 0.82-1.64, P=0.40), respectively, when adjusted for age at first birth, current age, parity, body mass index (BMI), increased blood cholesterol, hypertension, diabetes/impaired glucose tolerance, CAD, and mother's myocardial infarction. History of pre-eclampsia was associated with increased blood cholesterol, higher current BMI and blood pressure, and higher current prevalence of hypertension, diabetes/impaired glucose tolerance. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-eclampsia is most prevalent in the Northern part of Finland and could only be partly explained by higher prevalence of CAD risk factors.     

老年急性冠脉综合征合并糖尿病患者的冠脉病变及其危险因素

目的：研究老年急性冠脉综合征（ACS）合并糖尿病患者的冠状动脉病变特点及相关危险因素。方法：选择老年ACS患者209例,被分为两组：ACS合并糖尿病组（观察组,73例）,ACS无糖尿病组（ACS对照组,136例）。并根据冠状动脉造影结果,对其冠脉病变特点进行分析。结果：观察组三支病变（50．68％）、弥漫性病变（27．22％）以及Gensini积分（24．21±4．37）分,均显著高于对照组[30．15％,16．09％,（18．53±3．59）分,P〈0．05～〈0．01]。多元Logistic逐步回归分析显示观察组高血压的合并风险比值（OR）为1．455,P=0．013,甘油三酯OR为1.930,P=0．003,总胆固醇OR为1．552,P=0．006,均为其危险因素。结论：老年急性冠脉综合征合并糖尿病患者的冠脉病变复杂、严重,甘油三酯、总胆固醇以及合并高血压病史是其发生、发展的重要危险因素。     

川崎病患儿458例冠状动脉损害危险因素研究

目的：探讨川崎病（KD）患儿合并冠状动脉病变（CAL）的危险因素。方法：选择2000—2004年在山西省4个地区的4所医院住院的458例确诊川崎病患儿为研究对象。回顾性分析这些患儿的临床资料,对合并冠状动脉病变组（CAL）和未合并冠状动脉病变组（无CAL）的病例进行组间对照研究,并对影响CAL发生的15种因素进行Logistic回归分析。结果：单因素分析显示：就诊时发热天数、总发热天数、血小板计数（PLT）、红细胞沉降率（ESR）、C反应蛋白（CRP）与CAL的发生密切相关（P〈0.05或P〈0.01）;多因素Logistic回归分析显示：年龄、总发热天数、CRP与KD合并CAL显著独立相关（P〈0.05或P〈0.01）。结论：年龄〈1岁、总发热天数〉10d、CRP增高是KD合并CAL的高危因素。     

中老年患者心血管病危险因素与冠状动脉病变程度的相关性分析

目的 探讨心血管病危险因素与冠状动脉(冠脉)病变严重程度的相关性. 方法入选2008年10月至2009年12月在山东大学齐鲁医院行冠脉造影术的病例728例,收集其性别、年龄、吸烟史、高血压、糖尿病、总胆红素(TBIL)、血脂、尿酸等临床资料.同时收集患者冠脉造影结果,以美国心脏病学会和美国心脏协会(ACC/AHA)评分法计算冠脉病变积分,以冠脉病变积分及是否诊断为冠心病评价其冠状动脉病变程度.统计学处理采用多因素回归分析. 结果多因素回归分析结果显示,男性、年龄、高血压、糖尿病,高密度脂蛋白胆固醇这5个危险因素是影响冠脉病变积分主要的危险因素,也是冠心病的主要危险因素;其中糖尿病是冠脉病变程度最重要的可控危险因素(OR=3.1179 P=0.005).相关分析显示低密度脂蛋白胆固醇、体质指数、总胆固醇、三酰甘油、尿酸、TBIL与冠脉病变程度存在相关性,但并未进入回归方程,在本研究中并为冠脉病变程度主要影响因素. 结论男性、年龄、高血压、糖尿病、低高密度脂蛋白胆固醇是冠脉病变严重程度的主要危险因素,且对于血脂水平较低的中国人有更好的预测价值.

Abstract：

Objective To evaluate the correlation between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and severity of coronary heart disease (CHD) in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Methods Seven hundred and twenty eight patients who underwent coronary angiography were selected from Qilu Hospital from October 2008 to December 2009. The clinical data about cardiovascular risk factors including age, gender, hypertension, smoking status, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, high uric acid level, low total bilirubin level, and coronary angiography results were collected. The severity and extent of coronary stenosis was evaluated by ACC/AHA coronary scoring system and CHD was diagnosed by angiography. Analyses were achieved by multiple regression analysis. Results Multiple regression analysis showed that age, gender, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and low HDL-C were prominent predictors of severity and extent of coronary heart disease. DM was the primary controllable risk factor of CHD (OR=3. 1179, P=0. 005). Conclusions The age, gender,hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and low HDL-C are correlated with angiographic severity and extent of CHD. Consequently, controlling these five risk factors is important in the intervention and prevention of CHD.     

早发冠心病患者冠状动脉病变特点及危险因素分析

目的 探讨早发冠心病患者冠状动脉病变特点及危险因素.方法 入选我院2012年6月至2014年4月经冠状动脉造影诊断为冠心病的患者279例,根据男性年龄≤55岁、女性年龄≤65岁分为早发冠心病组和非早发冠心病组.统计患者入院基本临床资料.所有患者均检测空腹血糖（FPG）、总胆固醇（TC）、甘油三酯（TG）、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇（HDL-C）和低密度脂蛋白胆固醇（LDL-C）.根据冠状动脉狭窄直径≥50％累及左前降支（LAD）、左回旋支（LCX）、右冠状动脉（RCA）或左主干（LM）分为单支、双支（累及左主干为双支病变）及三支病变组.根据Gensini积分标准对每位患者冠状动脉病变进行评分.结果 早发冠心病组男性比例、吸烟比例、存在早发冠心病家族史的比例、TG水平显著高于非早发冠心病组（P＜0.05）.与非早发冠心病组相比,早发冠心病组患者以单支病变为主,二者在受累冠状动脉部位上并无差别.非早发冠心病组患者平均冠状动脉病变支数、平均Gensini积分高于早发冠心病组（1.97±0.82比1.66±0.93,P=0.003;8.72±6.21比48.65±8.90,P=0.000）.多因素Logistic回归分析显示,男性（95％CI：2.342～10.420,P=0.000）、吸烟（95％CI：9.468～31.220,P=0.000）、早发冠心病家族史（95％CI：8.120～23.480,P=0.001）、TG（95％CI：1.224～5.465,P=0.001）是早发冠心病患者独立危险因素.结论 早发冠心病患者冠状动脉病变特点是以单支病变为主.男性、吸烟、早发冠心病家族史、TG是早发冠心病患者的独立危险因素.积极戒烟、降低TG能够降低早发冠心病的发病率.     

中老年冠心病多重危险因素临床分析

目的　观察中老年国人冠心病多重危险因素中各种因素所占比重。方法　顺序入选 16 2例 (男 12 4 ,女38)冠脉造影检查患者 ,采用LOGISTIC法分析年龄、性别、吸烟史、家族史、血压、脉压 (PP)、血糖 (Glu)、血胆固醇 (TC)和甘油三酯 (TG)等危险因素与冠脉狭窄病变之间的关系。结果　性别、年龄、吸烟、舒张压 (DBP)、PP、Glu、TC与冠心病有显著相关性 ,其中以性别、年龄、Glu、DBP和PP影响较大。结论　冠心病的危险因素控制 ,除血糖、血脂和戒烟外 ,纠正舒张压过低和脉压过大非常重要     

肺炎衣原体感染增加糖尿病患冠心病的危险性

目的　本研究旨在探讨肺炎衣原体感染与冠心病的关系。方法　 142 2例冠状动脉造影证实有冠心病或急性心肌梗死的患者和 2 97例冠状动脉造影证实的非冠心病患者作为对照 ,应用ELISA方法检测血液中的肺炎衣原体 (chlamydiapneumoniae,Cp)特异性IgG抗体 (CpIgG)。所有个体分为有、无冠心病 ,有、无冠心病危险因素 (年老、男性、吸烟、糖尿病、血脂紊乱、高血压、CpIgG抗体阳性、较少体力劳动和体重指数 ) ,应用logistic回归分析 ,得出调整OR(比值比 )值 ,用于评估危险因素对冠心病的危险性。结果　冠心病患者组CpIgG阳性率 ( 31 1%)高于对照组 ( 2 4 9%) (P =0 0 35 ) ,但logistic回归分析显示 ,调整OR值为 1 2 95 ( 95 %CI:0 96 2～ 1 743 ,P =0 10 8) ,表明Cp感染与冠心病的发病关系不明显 ,而年龄≥ 5 5岁、男性、吸烟、高血压、糖尿病是冠心病的独立危险因素 ;进一步分组研究表明 ,CpIgG阳性组中 (n =5 16 ) ,糖尿病的调整OR值为 4 90 1( 95 %CI:1 44 9～ 16 5 81,P =0 0 1) ,而CpIgG阴性组 (n =12 0 3)调整OR值为 1 6 75 ( 95 %CI:0 988～ 2 841,P >0 0 5 ) ,表明Cp感染增加了糖尿病对冠心病的危险性 ;老年、男性和吸烟的调整OR值 ,CpIgG阳性组也高于CpIgG阴性组。结论　Cp感染与冠心病发病     

40岁及以下女性冠心病患者临床特点和危险因素分析

目的探讨年轻冠心病患者的临床特点及性别差异。方法回顾分析2009—2013年在我院诊断为冠心病并行冠状动脉造影检查,年龄≤40岁的女性患者,共77例,并以年龄按1:4随机匹配308例男性患者。对入选患者的临床表现、危险因素、冠状动脉造影特点和治疗方法进行比较分析。结果 (1)临床表现:女性患者自发/变异型心绞痛比例显著高于男性(14.3%比7.1%,P=0.045),心肌梗死比例显著低于男性(35.1%比58.1%,P<0.001);(2)危险因素:女性患者吸烟比例显著低于男性(5.2%比79.9%,P<0.001);高血压、2型糖尿病、血脂异常、阳性家族史比例性别差异无统计学意义(均为P>0.05);(3)冠状动脉造影结果:女性患者的零支病变、单支病变、双支病变和三支/左主干病变的比例和男性比较,总体差异无统计学意义;但女性零支病变比例高于男性(9.1%比3.2%,P=0.026);(4)治疗方法:女性患者单纯药物治疗比例高于男性(33.8%比16.2%,P<0.001),经皮冠状动脉介入治疗术比例低于男性(64.9%比79.5%,P=0.007)。结论年轻冠心病患者女性吸烟比例低于男性,自发/变异型心绞痛、非阻塞性冠状动脉病变和接受单纯药物治疗者更多。     

冠状动脉造影患者心血管病危险因素与冠状动脉病变程度的相关性分析

目的探讨心血管疾病危险因素与冠状动脉造影病变程度相关性。方法入选行冠状动脉造影住院病例920例,其中确诊冠心病患728例(占79．13％),排除冠心病患192例(占20．87％)。冠状动脉造影病变程度由病变支数,经造影是否诊断冠心病及病变Gensini总积分表示。危险因素包括性别、年龄、高血压病、吸烟、2型糖尿病、血脂异常、高尿酸。采用单因素和多因素分析。结果(1)单因素分析显示,在病变程度不同的各组间比较,随各组中存在单个危险因素病例百分率的增加,冠状动脉造影病变支数和病变Gensini总积分随之增加。(2)多因素Logistic回归分析(前进法)显示,高LDL-C为冠状动脉造影诊断冠心病最显的独立相关危险因素(OR=2．816,95％可信区间1．903,4．167,P=0．001),其他危险因素依次为男性、吸烟、2型糖尿病、低HDL-C、高血压病、高尿酸血症和增龄。性别分组后分别经多因素Logistic回归(前进法)分析显示,男性组中高LDL-C为冠状动脉造影诊断冠心病最显的独立相关的危险因素(OR=2．965,95％可信区间1．880,4．676,P=0．009)。女性分组中吸烟(OR=2．840,95％可信区间0．553,5．378,P=0．001)和高尿酸血症(OR=2．132,95％可信区间1．048,3．641,P=0．017)为冠状动脉造影诊断冠心病最显的独立相关的危险因素。结论高LDL-c是冠状动脉造影诊断冠心病最显的独立相关危险因素,在男性组中更为突出,但其他危险因素如男性、吸烟、2型糖尿病、低HDL-c、高血压病、高尿酸和增龄亦不可忽视,并且各危险因素在不同性别中危险程度有所不同,应该加以区别对待和重视。     

Prior coronary artery bypass graft surgery patients undergoing diagnostic coronary angiography have multiple uncontrolled coronary artery disease risk factors and high risk for cardiovascular events

Limited contemporary data exist on the cardiovascular risk of patients with prior coronary artery bypass grafting surgery (CABG) requiring diagnostic coronary angiography. We examined the prevalence and control of coronary artery disease risk factors and the outcomes of 367 prior CABG patients who underwent diagnostic coronary angiography between October 1, 2004 and May 31, 2007 at the Dallas Veterans Affairs Medical Center. Mean age was 65 ± 9 years, 97% were men, and the mean time from CABG to diagnostic angiography was 8.2 ± 6.1 years. Hypertension, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, diabetes mellitus, smoking, and obesity were suboptimally controlled in 70%, 59%, 47%, 33%, and 50%, respectively. Intake of statins and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers was 88% and 81%, respectively. After a mean follow-up of 1.4 ± 0.8 years, the incidence of death and major cardiovascular events was 10% and 32%, respectively. In spite of significant improvement compared to previous studies and good compliance with indicated medications, contemporary prior CABG patients undergoing coronary angiography still have multiple and poorly controlled coronary artery disease risk factors and high risk for cardiovascular events. Novel pharmacologic and behavioral treatment strategies are needed.     

Impact of atherosclerosis risk factors on the clinical presentation of arterial occlusive disease in Arabic patients

BACKGROUND:

Although the risk factors for atherosclerosis have been identified, their impact on the presentation of arterial occlusive disease has not been studied among Arabs.

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the correlation between atherosclerotic risk factors and the extent and presentation of atherosclerotic disease in different arterial systems.

METHODS:

The present case-control study was performed on a consecutive series of Arabic patients over one year. There were two groups – an atherosclerotic group, which included patients with peripheral arterial disease, extracranial cerebrovascular disease or coronary artery disease (CAD), and the control group, which included patients admitted to one of the general surgical units who were free from atherosclerotic disease. All patients underwent evaluation of risk factors (diabetes mellitus [DM], smoking, dyslipidemia and hypertension) for atherosclerosis and systemic assessment of the vascular tree.

RESULTS:

Two hundred fifteen patients in the atherosclerotic group and 191 patients in the control group were included in the study. There were positive correlations between the prevalence of DM, smoking, dyslipidemia and the severity of presentation of peripheral arterial disease, and the extent of CAD. The correlation between the incidence of DM and the severity of presentation of CAD was also significant. The correlation was also positive between the incidence of ex-smoking and hypertension, and the severity of presentation of extracranial cerebrovascular disease.

CONCLUSION:

Different risk factors may interact in different ways in the clinical presentation of atherosclerotic disease in different arterial systems.     

青年冠心病患者心血管病危险因素与冠状动脉病变程度的相关性分析

目的 探讨青年冠心病患者心血管疾病危险因素与冠状动脉（冠脉）造影病变程度相关性.方法 疑似青年冠心病患者（≤45岁）行冠脉造影住院病例91例,经冠脉造影确诊冠心病患者67例,排除冠心病患者24例.冠脉造影病变程度由病变支数和病变Gensini总积分表示.危险因素包括性别、高血压病、吸烟、饮酒、2型糖尿病、血脂异常、肥胖.采用单因素和多因素分析.结果 （1）单因素分析显示,在病变程度不同的各组间比较,随各组中存在单个危险因素病例百分率的增加,冠脉造影病变支数和病变Gensini总积分随之增加.（2）多因素Logistic回归分析（前进法）显示,高LDL-C为冠脉造影诊断冠心病最显著的独立相关危险因素,其他危险因素依次为男性、吸烟、高血压病、2型糖尿病、低HDL-C、肥胖和饮酒.结论 高LDL-C是冠脉造影诊断冠心病最显著的独立相关危险因素,但其他危险因素如男性、吸烟、饮酒、2型糖尿病、低HDL-C、高血压病和肥胖亦不可忽视,各危险因素在不同性别中危险程度有所不同.     

PDAY risk score predicts advanced coronary artery atherosclerosis in middle-aged persons as well as youth

A risk score formula to estimate the probability of advanced atherosclerosis using coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors was developed for persons 15–34 years of age by the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) study. We applied the PDAY risk score to autopsied individuals from the Community Pathology Study (CPS), a different population that included middle-aged as well as young subjects.

The PDAY risk score was associated with extent of raised lesions in the coronary arteries of CPS cases 15–34 years of age. The PDAY risk score computed from only the modifiable risk factors was associated with extent of raised lesions in the coronary arteries of subjects 35–54 years of age.

The association of the PDAY risk score with lesions in 15–34 year old CPS subjects validates the PDAY risk score. The associations in both younger (15–34 years) and older (35–54 years) subjects suggest a seamless progression of the effects of the modifiable risk factors on atherosclerosis from 15 to 54 years of age. These results support the proposal that early control of risk factors is likely to prevent or delay the onset of CHD.