Vegetarianism,depression, and the five factor model of personality

This study investigated whether vegetarians and omnivores differ in their personality characteristics. We measured the five factor model of personality and depressive symptoms in vegetarians, who avoided meat and fish (n = 276); semi-vegetarians, who ate some meat and/or fish (n = 1191); and omnivores (n = 4955). Although vegetarians and semi-vegetarians were more open to new experiences, they were more neurotic and depressed than omnivores. Neither conscientiousness nor agreeableness varied as a function of dietary habits. These findings contribute to our understanding about differences between vegetarians’ and omnivores’ personalities, which might help us better understand individual differences in food preferences.     

Relationships between vegetarian dietary habits and daily well-being

ABSTRACT

The goal of the present study was to examine differences in the daily experiences of vegetarians and non-vegetarians. At the end of each day for two weeks, a convenience sample of American undergraduates described how they felt and how they thought about themselves that day, and they described the events that occurred to them that day. Multilevel modeling analyses (days nested within persons) found that vegetarians (individuals who avoided all meat and fish, n = 24) reported lower self-esteem, lower psychological adjustment, less meaning in life, and more negative moods than semi-vegetarians (individuals who ate some meat and/or fish, n = 56) and omnivores (individuals who did not restrict their intake of meat or fish, n = 323). Vegetarians also reported more negative social experiences than omnivores and semi-vegetarians. Although women were more likely than men to identify as vegetarians and semi-vegetarians, controlling for participant gender did not change the results of the analyses. The differences we found are consistent with other research that suggests that vegetarians are less psychologically well-adjusted than non-vegetarians. The implications of the present results for understanding relationships between dietary habits and well-being are discussed.     

Comparison of Nutritional Quality of the Vegan,Vegetarian, Semi-Vegetarian,Pesco-Vegetarian and Omnivorous Diet

The number of studies comparing nutritional quality of restrictive diets is limited. Data on vegan subjects are especially lacking. It was the aim of the present study to compare the quality and the contributing components of vegan, vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian and omnivorous diets. Dietary intake was estimated using a cross-sectional online survey with a 52-items food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI-2010) and the Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS) were calculated as indicators for diet quality. After analysis of the diet questionnaire and the FFQ, 1475 participants were classified as vegans (n = 104), vegetarians (n = 573), semi-vegetarians (n = 498), pesco-vegetarians (n = 145), and omnivores (n = 155). The most restricted diet, i.e., the vegan diet, had the lowest total energy intake, better fat intake profile, lowest protein and highest dietary fiber intake in contrast to the omnivorous diet. Calcium intake was lowest for the vegans and below national dietary recommendations. The vegan diet received the highest index values and the omnivorous the lowest for HEI-2010 and MDS. Typical aspects of a vegan diet (high fruit and vegetable intake, low sodium intake, and low intake of saturated fat) contributed substantially to the total score, independent of the indexing system used. The score for the more prudent diets (vegetarians, semi-vegetarians and pesco-vegetarians) differed as a function of the used indexing system but they were mostly better in terms of nutrient quality than the omnivores.     

Will the real vegetarian please stand up? An investigation of dietary restraint and eating disorder symptoms in vegetarians versus non-vegetarians

Adherence to a vegetarian diet has been hypothesized to be a factor in the onset and maintenance of disordered eating behavior; however, evidence to support this assumption has been largely mixed. The two studies presented here sought to address the causes of inconsistent findings in previous research, including: small samples of true vegetarians, lack of appropriate operational definitions of "vegetarianism", and uncertainty about the appropriateness of existing assessments of eating behaviors for semi-vegetarians. Study 1 assessed eating behaviors in the largest samples of confirmed true vegetarians and vegans surveyed to date, and compared them to semi-vegetarians and omnivores. Semi-vegetarians reported the highest levels of eating-related pathology; true vegetarians and vegans appeared to be healthiest in regards to weight and eating. Study 2 examined differences between semi-vegetarians and omnivores in terms of restraint and disordered eating and found little evidence for more eating-related pathology in semi-vegetarians, compared to omnivores. Semi-vegetarians' higher scores on traditional assessments of eating behaviors appeared artificially inflated by ratings of items assessing avoidance of specific food items which should be considered normative in the context of a vegetarian diet. Findings shed light on the sources of inconsistencies in prior research on eating behaviors in vegetarians and suggest that semi-vegetarianism - as opposed to true vegetarianism or veganism - is the most likely related to disordered eating.     

Application of a Modified Healthy Eating Index (HEI-Flex) to Compare the Diet Quality of Flexitarians,Vegans and Omnivores in Germany

Interest in plant-based nutrition has steadily increased in the western world in the recent years. The number of people following a meat-reduced, flexitarian diet is growing continuously. However, little is known about the diet quality of flexitarians compared to vegans or omnivores. Therefore, in this cross-sectional study, the food intake of 94 participants aged between 25–45 years was recorded via a validated food frequency questionnaire and 28 self-designed questions about the consumption of plant-based alternatives. An adapted Healthy Eating Index, HEI-flex, was developed to evaluate the diet quality of flexitarians, vegans and omnivores. Higher score points (SP) of the HEI-flex are associated with higher compliance with the official diet recommendations (V_max = 100 SP). Finally, flexitarians scored significantly more highly when compared to omnivores (54 ± 8 vs. 47 ± 9 SP; p = 0.008) but lower than vegans (54 ± 8 vs. 61 ± 10 SP; p = 0.010). The results showed that the HEI-flex is a useful tool for assessing and comparing the diet quality of flexitarians, vegans and omnivores. Despite the consumption of highly processed plant-based alternatives, reduction in meat and meat products seems to be accompanied by increased overall diet quality.     

Where the Rubber Meats the Road: Relationships between Vegetarianism and Socio-political Attitudes and Voting Behavior

ABSTRACT

Previous research has found that omnivores are more hierarchical and more authoritarian than vegetarians. To examine if such differences extend to political behavior a sample of American undergraduates (N = 1211) described their diets, endorsement of social policies, political orientation, and voting behavior. Consistent with previous research, we found that compared to vegetarians and semi-vegetarians, omnivores favored conservative policies more strongly and liberal polices less strongly, identified more closely with the Republican party and less closely with the Democratic party, were less liberal, approved of Donald Trump’s performance more, and were more likely to have voted for Trump.     

Attitudes and health behaviours of young adolescent omnivores and vegetarians: a school-based study

This study aimed to identify attitudes, health behaviours, social adjustment and self-reported health of vegetarian and omnivore teenagers and determine characteristics independently related to vegetarian status. Participants were 630 Grade 9 students, ages 13-15 years, in seven schools in Ontario, Canada. Vegetarian status was determined using a 19-item food inventory. The vegetarian group included lacto, ovo and/or lacto-ovo and semi-vegetarians. Omnivores consumed red meat at least monthly. Social adjustment factors included school misbehaviour, low academic performance, authority-defying risks and unsafe/illegal risks. Logistic regression estimated the relationship of characteristics to vegetarian status. The sample comprised 25 vegetarians (4%) and 605 omnivores. Analyses focussed mainly on females; 22 vegetarians and 315 omnivores. Dieting behaviours (current, frequent and past year), alcohol use, poorer social adjustment and poorer self-rated health were positively related to vegetarian eating (p<.05). Among females (using logistic regression), past year dieting (OR 9.88; 95% CI 2.19-44.47) and alcohol use (OR 2.91; 95% CI 1.02-8.32) predominated in the presence of attitudes that personal health and animal rights are very important. The model predicted 79.9% of cases. Teenage vegetarians were distinctive in health behaviours. The independent, positive association of alcohol use with vegetarian eating is a unique and concerning finding. Dieting behaviours were strongly, independently and positively linked to female vegetarian eating. Further studies with a greater range of behaviours would be useful to more fully characterize teenage vegetarians and explore subgroups.     

Experimental effects of chocolate deprivation on cravings, mood, and consumption in high and low chocolate-cravers

This study examined how deprivation of chocolate affects state-level chocolate cravings, mood, and chocolate consumption in high and low trait-level chocolate-cravers. After identifying high and low chocolate cravers (N = 58), half of the participants were instructed not to eat any chocolate for 2 weeks. This created four experimental groups: deprived high-cravers (n = 14), deprived low-cravers (n = 14), non-deprived high-cravers (n = 15), and non-deprived low-cravers (n = 15). Following 2-week deprivation, state-level food cravings, mood, and chocolate intake were measured in a laboratory setting and compared across groups. Analyses revealed that anxiety increased over time for high-cravers (both deprived and non-deprived); state-level chocolate- and food-craving increased over time for both deprived groups and non-deprived high-cravers; non-deprived high-cravers ate the most chocolate; and, high-cravers were more joyful and guilty than low-cravers after eating chocolate in the laboratory. Theoretically, these results suggest that chocolate consumption may be better explained by trait-level of chocolate craving than by deprivation and highlighted significant differences in mood, state-level cravings, and chocolate intake between cravers and non-cravers following deprivation.     

汕头市社区中老年素食女性膳食模式与骨健康的相关性研究

目的　调查汕头市社区中老年素食女性的膳食模式及与骨健康的关系,为制定其健康促进计划提供依据。方法　于2017年7月-9月整群随机抽取汕头市龙湖区和潮阳区各1个佛堂的≥40岁的素食女性共127例为素食组,并按年龄1[DK]∶1匹配普食女性127例为普食组。采用回顾性问卷调查食物摄入频次及生活饮食习惯,运用超声骨密度仪测定右足跟骨骨密度。结果　素食组骨密度BMD均值低于普食组（0.38±0.11 vs 0.41±0.11, P＜0.05）。素食组包括绝对素食者28例（22.1%）,乳－蛋素食者70例（55.1%）,半素食者29例（22.8%）,与普食组相比,其膳食中每周摄入频次的秩均值豆腐干较高（P＜0.05）,而酸奶、鸡蛋、肉类、水产品较低（均P＜0.05）。多因素分析表明,年龄(OR=4.752, 95%CI: 2.515~8.979)为被调查女性OP患病的危险因素,而较高的体质指数(OR=0.861, 95%CI: 0.785~0.944)、摄入豆及豆制品(OR=0.300, 95%CI: 0.093~0.973)为保护因素。结论　汕头市社区中老年素食女性膳食中含钙高的食物摄入频次较低,骨密度偏低,须重视膳食结构的调整,预防骨质疏松症的发生。     

Plasma levels of advanced glycation end products in healthy, long-term vegetarians and subjects on a western mixed diet

Summary Background Evidence indicates that food-derived Maillard's reaction products are absorbed and yet can be detected in the circulation. Aim of the study We postulated that consumption of the heat-treated food by omnivores could be reflected by higher plasma levels of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in comparison with vegetarians, who in cooking (by keeping away from meat) use lower temperatures and less time for heating. Methods Plasma fluorescent AGEs (350/450 nm) and Ne-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML, competitive ELISA) levels were investigated in 3 groups of healthy vegetarians (9 vegans-V, 19 lacto-ovo-vegetarians – VLO and 14 semi-vegetarians – VS) and compared with those of age-matched omnivores (O, n=19). Mean duration of vegetarian diet was V: 7.2±1.0, VLO: 8.2±0.8 and VS: 7.9±1.1 years. Results Both fluorescent AGE (O: 9.9±0.5; V: 10.8±0.7, LO: 13.1±0.8* and SV: 11.6±1.2 ×10³ AU), and CML levels (O: 427.1±15.0, V: 514.8±24.6*, LO: 525.7±29.5**, SV: 492.6±18.0* ng/ml) were significantly lower in omnivores than in vegetarians. Plasma glucose, parameters of renal function (plasma concentration of creatinine and cystatin C, calculated glomerular filtration rate – GFR) as well as C-reactive protein levels were within the normal range and did not differ significantly between the groups. Thus, neither decline of kidney function nor inflammatory processes contributed to the rise in plasma AGEs. Conclusion Enhanced plasma AGE levels in vegetarians in comparison to omnivores are herein presented for the first time. Mechanisms of AGE elevation and potential pathophysiological relevance of this finding are to be elucidated in prospective studies. Received: 18 June 2001, Accepted: 7 November 2001     

Obese Vegetarians and Omnivores Show Different Metabolic Changes: Analysis of 1340 Individuals

Our study evaluated the association between the increase in body mass index (BMI) in men and women (menstruating and non-menstruating) (n = 1340) with different dietary groups (omnivores, semi-vegetarians, lacto-ovo-vegetarian, and vegans) and the measurement of the biochemical markers high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), ferritin, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C), and insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR). Increasing BMI values in all groups and dietary profiles were related to a significant increase in hs-CRP (p < 0.0001), ALT (p = 0.02), ferritin (p = 0.009), and HbA1C (p < 0.0001), with no difference between dietary groups (p < 0.05). The increase in BMI increases the levels of HOMA-IR (p < 0.0001) and GGT (p < 0.05), with higher values found in men when compared to women (p < 0.0001 for HOMA- IR and p = 0.0048 for GGT). The association between ALT and BMI was different between dietary groups, as it showed a decrease in vegan women who do not menstruate compared to other dietary groups (p = 0.0099). When including only obese individuals (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m², n = 153) in the analysis, we observed lower concentrations of GGT and ferritin in vegetarians than in omnivores, regardless of gender and menstrual blood loss (p = 0.0395). Our data showed that for both vegetarians and omnivores, the higher the BMI, the worse the metabolic parameters. However, regarding obesity, vegetarians showed better antioxidant status (lower GGT elevation) and lower inflammatory status (lower ferritin elevation), which may provide them with potential protection in the development of morbidities associated with overweight.     

European consumers' perceived seriousness of their eating habits relative to other personal health risks

Objective

Poor eating habits are a key priority on the European public health agenda due to their large health and economic implications. Healthy eating interventions may be more effective if consumers perceive their eating habits as a more serious personal health risk. This study investigates European consumers' perceived seriousness of their eating habits, its determinants and relative importance among other potential personal health risks including weight, stress and pollution.

Method

A quantitative survey was conducted during Spring 2011 among samples representative for age, gender and region in five European countries (n = 3003).

Results

Participants were neutral towards the seriousness of their eating habits for personal health. Eating habits were ranked third after stress and weight. Gender, age, country, health motive, body mass index, and subjective health status were important determinants of the perceived seriousness of their eating habits, whereas perceived financial condition, smoking and education were insignificant.

Conclusion

Eating habits were perceived more seriously by women, Italians, obese, and younger individuals with stronger health motives and fair subjective health status. Nevertheless, other health risks were often considered more important than eating habits. More or specific efforts are required to increase Europeans' awareness of the seriousness of their eating habits for personal health.     

Dietary intake among young adolescents in Ontario: associations with vegetarian status and attitude toward health

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to describe the dietary intakes of adolescent vegetarians and omnivores and determine if, and how, attitude toward personal health related to food consumption. METHODS: Among grade 9 students in Ontario, Canada (n = 630), vegetarian status and estimated consumption of foods and food groups were determined by food frequency questionnaire. Personal health was self-categorized as very important (the "health conscious") or somewhat/not important (the "non-health conscious"). RESULTS: The prevalence of vegetarianism was 6.5% (CI = 4.6-8.4%) among females and 1.0% (CI = 0.2-1.8%) among males. Health-conscious omnivores consumed more grain, vegetables and fruit, and milk product than non-health-conscious omnivores (P < 0.05). Health-conscious vegetarians ingested more grain products, vegetables and fruit, and meat and alternatives than non-health-conscious vegetarians (P < 0.05). Among non-health-conscious vegetarians, none consumed two daily servings of meat and alternatives compared to 60.5% of non-health-conscious omnivores (P < 0.001). Among health-conscious vegetarians, milk product consumption was lower than that of health-conscious omnivores (P = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS: Large proportions of both vegetarian and omnivore adolescents consumed suboptimal diets. Health consciousness had value as an indicator of dietary adequacy and may be useful as a rudimentary screen for problematic dietary consumption patterns.     

Moderation of distress-induced eating by emotional eating scores

Earlier studies assessing the possible moderator effect of self-reported emotional eating on the relation between stress and actual food intake have obtained mixed results. The null findings in some of these studies might be attributed to misclassification of participants due to the use of the median splits and/or insufficient participants with extreme scores. The objective of the two current studies was to test whether it is possible to predict distress-induced eating with a self-report emotional eating scale by using extreme scorers. In study 1 (n = 45) we used a between-subjects design and emotional eating was assessed after food intake during a negative or a neutral mood (induced by a movie). In study 2 (n = 47) we used a within-subjects design and emotional eating was assessed well before food intake, which occurred after a control or stress task (Trier Social Stress Task). The main outcome measure was actual food intake. In both studies self-reported emotional eating significantly moderated the relation between distress and food intake. As expected, low emotional eaters ate less during the sad movie or after stress than during the neutral movie or after the control task, whereas high emotional eaters ate more. No such moderator effect was found for emotional eating in the entire sample (n = 124) of study 1 using the median-split procedure or the full range of emotional eating scores. We conclude that it is possible to predict distress-induced food intake using self-reports of emotional eating provided that the participants have sufficiently extreme emotional eating scores.     

Distinct foods with smaller unit would be an effective approach to achieve sustainable weight loss

We studied the effects of food type and food unit size on food intake and satiety using fried rice mixed with Kimchi in healthy Korean young women (n = 31). Amorphous fried rice (1st week), distinct large fried rice balls (100 g/unit, 2nd week) and distinct small fried rice balls (20 g/unit, 3rd week) were served in the same content and volume (500 g). Subjects ate significantly (p < .001) less distinct large fried rice balls (243.5 g) compared to amorphous fried rice (317.2 g). Despite consuming more amorphous fried rice, subjects did not feel significantly fuller after eating amorphous fried rice compared to distinct large fried rice balls. When distinct fried rice balls were served as smaller unit, subjects ate significantly less them (small unit; 190.6 g vs. large unit; 243.5 g, p < .01). Although subjects ate more distinct fried rice balls provided as large unit, they rated similar satiety and hunger levels for distinct small and distinct large fried rice balls. In conclusion, we propose that distinct foods with smaller unit would be an effective approach to achieve sustainable weight loss.     

Does a population-based multi-factorial lifestyle intervention increase social inequality in dietary habits? The Inter99 study

Objective

To investigate whether the effect of an individualised multi-factorial lifestyle intervention on dietary habits differs across socioeconomic groups.

Methods

The study was an individualised multi-factorial lifestyle intervention study with a control group, Inter99 (1999-2006), Copenhagen, Denmark. Participants in the intervention group (n = 6 091) received lifestyle intervention during a five-year period. The control group (n = 3 324) was followed by questionnaires. Multilevel regression analyses were used, including interaction term between intervention effect and socioeconomic position (SEP) and analysed separately for men and women. SEP was measured as length of education and employment status and dietary habits were measured by a validated food frequency questionnaire.

Results

Men with a short education improved their dietary habits more (net-change [95% confidence interval]) (0.25 points [− 0.01;0.52]) than men with longer education (0.02 points [− 0.09;0.14]), (interaction: p = 0.02). Furthermore, unemployed women improved their dietary intake more (0.33 points [0.05;0.61]) than employed women (0.01 points [− 0.10;0.11]), (interaction: p = 0.03). Similar results were found for fruit intake, whereas no significant interactions were found for fish, fat and vegetable intake.

Conclusions

Individualised dietary interventions do not increase and may even decrease or hinder further widening of the social inequalities in health due to unhealthy dietary habits among socially disadvantaged individuals.     

To eat or not to eat. A comparison of current and former animal product limiters

In this exploratory study, we compared current and former pescatarians, vegetarians and vegans on a number of variables including the motivations for their food choices. Participants were recruited via online message boards as well as through snowball sampling. Of the 247 participants, 196 were currently limiting animal products and 51 were former animal product limiters. Current limiters were more likely to have made a gradual rather than abrupt transition to animal product limitation and were more likely to have joined a vegetarian or vegan group than former limiters. Furthermore, current limiters indicated that their eating pattern was a part of their self identity. These findings shed light on the differences among current and former vegans and vegetarians and can inform individuals interested in promoting animal product limitation for health or ethical reasons.     

Does meal duration predict amount consumed in lone diners? An evaluation of the time-extension hypothesis

The time-extension hypothesis has been proposed to describe why social facilitation (the tendency for presence of co-eaters to increase the amount eaten) occurs amongst groups of diners. However, it is possible that time-extension could increase the amount eaten in the absence of social effects. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess whether prolonged exposure to a food environment without social interaction could increase consumption. Lone diners (n = 141) were observed eating in a fast food environment. The items consumed, meal duration, estimated demographics (sex, weight status and age) and whether or not the participant was reading were recorded unobtrusively. Lone diners who were reading spent longer eating (M = 17.36; SD = 8.23) than those who were not (M = 8.88; SD = 5.47), but energy intake was less than 200 kJ greater, and not overall related to time spent eating. The fact that time-extension did not alter the amount eaten in lone diners is discussed in the context of previous studies and the theory of social facilitation.     

Attentional bias in restrictive eating disorders. Stronger attentional avoidance of high-fat food compared to healthy controls?

A striking feature of the restricting subtype of anorexia nervosa (AN) is that these patients are extremely successful in restricting their food intake. Possibly, they are highly efficient in avoiding attentional engagement of food cues, thereby preventing more elaborate processing of food cues and thus subsequent craving. This study examined whether patients diagnosed with restrictive eating disorders (‘restricting AN-like patients’; N = 88) indeed show stronger attentional avoidance of visual food stimuli than healthy controls (N = 76). Attentional engagement and disengagement were assessed by means of a pictorial exogenous cueing task, and (food and neutral) pictures were presented for 300, 500, or 1000 ms. In the 500 ms condition, both restricting AN-like patients and healthy controls demonstrated attentional avoidance of high-fat food as indexed by a negative cue-validity effect and impaired attentional engagement with high-fat food, whereas no evidence was found for facilitated disengagement from high-fat food. Within the group of restricting AN-like patients, patients with relatively severe eating pathology showed relatively strong attentional engagement with low-fat food. There was no evidence for attentional bias in the 300 and 1000 ms condition. The pattern of findings indicate that attentional avoidance of high-fat food is a common phenomenon that may become counterproductive in restricting AN-like patients, as it could facilitate their restricted food intake.