Robots in general surgery: present and future

Robotic surgery is an emerging technology. We began to use this technique in 2000, after it was approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Our preliminary experience was satisfactory. We report 4 years' experience of using this technique in our institution. Between August 2000 and December 2004, 399 patients underwent robotic surgery using the Da Vinci system. We performed 110 gastric bypass procedures, 30 Lap band, 59 Heller myotomies, 12 Nissen fundoplications, 6 epiphrenic diverticula, 18 total esophagectomies, 3 esophageal leiomyoma resections, 1 pyloroplasty, 2 gastrojejunostomies, 2 transduodenal sphincteroplasties, 10 adrenalectomies and 145 living-related donor nephrectomies. Operating times for fundoplications and Lap band were longer. After the learning curve, the operating times and morbidity of the remaining procedures were considerably reduced. Robot-assisted surgery allows advanced laparoscopic procedures to be performed with enhanced results given that it reduces the learning curve as measured by operating time and morbidity.     

Robots in laparoscopic surgery

BACKGROUND: The Da Vinci Robotic System became available at our institution in late August 2000. We decided to utilize this system to perform advanced laparoscopic procedures. METHODS: This is a review of the status of robotics and its application in surgery. We report our experience using the Da Vinci system. RESULTS: We have used the Da Vinci for 34 advanced laparoscopic cases: 7 gastric bypasses for morbid obesity, 9 Heller myotomies for achalasia, 11 donor nephrectomies, 2 gastrojejunostomies, and single cases of bilateral adrenalectomy, Nissen fundoplication, Toupet fundoplication, and cholecystectomy. No robot-related complications were noted. CONCLUSIONS: This early experience suggests that robotic surgery is a safe and effective alternative to conventional laparoscopic surgery. We believe that robotic surgery, with its ability to restore the hand-eye coordination and three-dimensional view lost in laparoscopic surgery, will allow us to perform complex procedures with greater precision and confidence and better results.     

Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery. Preliminary results at our Center

The aim of our study was to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, in terms of operative times, complications and length of hospital stay, using the Da Vinci Robotic Surgical System (Intuitive Surgical, Inc.). Twenty-five patients underwent robotic procedures. The indications were gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in 13 cases, achalasia in 2, cholelithiasis in 2, adrenal adenoma in Cushing syndrome in 6, pheochromocytoma in 2, and incidentaloma in 1. Robotic surgery was compared with the traditional laparoscopic approach. From January to September 2002 13 Nissen-Rossetti fundoplications, 2 Heller myotomies with Dor fundoplication, 2 cholecystectomies and 9 adrenalectomies (6 left adrenalectomies, 3 right adrenalectomies) were performed. There were no significant differences in age, preoperative body mass index (mean 28; range: 18-32) or sex between patients treated by robotic surgery and those treated by traditional laparoscopy. Operative times were significantly longer in the robotic surgery group (97.1 minutes, range: 77-126 minutes, versus 82.5 minutes, range: 65-100 minutes, for Nissen-Rossetti fundoplication; 132.8 minutes, range 104-181 minutes, versus 82.1 minutes, range 55-120 minutes, for adrenalectomy). There were no intraoperative complications. Conversion to traditional laparoscopy was necessary owing to technical difficulties in 4/9 adrenalectomies (44.4%; 3 left, 1 right). There was no significant difference in length of hospital stay (3.2 days, range 2-7 days, for Nissen-Rossetti fundoplication; 5.7 days, range 4-9 days, for adrenalectomy). Our study confirms the safety and feasibility of robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery. However, operative times were longer and costs higher, with no difference in outcomes. Given the current level of technology and experience, robotic surgery would not appear to afford any advantage over standard laparoscopic approaches.     

达芬奇机器人系统与腹腔镜在子宫内膜癌手术治疗中的对比分析

目的:对比并探讨达芬奇机器人手术系统与传统腹腔镜手术在子宫内膜癌手术治疗中的安全性、有效性,并进行自我效能分析.方法:回顾性分析2015年9月～2020年1月上海交通大学医学院附属仁济医院妇产科收治的同一术者进行初始手术治疗的137例子宫内膜恶性肿瘤患者,其中达芬奇机器人组64例,腹腔镜组73例.统计分析两组患者手术时间、术中出血量、淋巴结切除数目、术后肛门排气时间、术后引流放置时间、住院时间、术后自我效能评价.结果:达芬奇机器人组和腹腔镜组比较,患者手术时间、术中出血量、术后肛门排气时间、术后引流放置时间、住院时间差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);清扫淋巴结数量无差异(P>0.05).且达芬奇机器人组较腹腔镜组患者术后自我效能感评估更佳(P=0.001).结论:对于子宫内膜癌的手术治疗,达芬奇机器人手术系统较传统腹腔镜手术能够缩短患者恢复时间,在保证手术安全性下可以提高有效性.且达芬奇机器人较腹腔镜手术治疗子宫内膜恶性肿瘤患者术后自我效能感更佳,更利于子宫内膜癌患者术后心理康复.     

Robotic-assisted pelvic organ prolapse surgery

Background This study describes technical aspect and short-term results of pelvic organ prolapse surgery using the da Vinci robotic system. Methods During a 1-year period, 18 consecutive patients with pelvic organ prolapse were operated on using the da-Vinci system. Clinical data were prospectively collected and analyzed. Results All but one procedure was successfully completed robotically (95%). Performed procedures were colpohysteropexy (n = 12), mesh rectopexy (n = 2), or sutured rectopexy combined with sigmoid resection (n = 4). Average setup time was 21 min and significantly decreased with experience. Mean operative time was 172 min (range, 45–280). There were no mortality and no specific morbidity due to the robotic approach. Mean hospital stay was 7 days. At 6 months, all patients were free of pelvic organ prolapse and stated that they were satisfied with anatomical and functional results. Conclusion Our experience indicates that using the da-Vinci robotic system is feasible, safe, and effective for the treatment of pelvic organ prolapse.     

Initial experience with the four-arm computer-enhanced telesurgery device in foregut surgery

BACKGROUND: The da Vinci robotic system (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA) has been used effectively and with good results. Previously, the surgeon could manipulate three arms on the robot: one camera port and two working ports. This configuration required a second surgeon for most general surgical procedures. Recently, the robotic device has been modified to include a fourth arm, adding another computer-assisted instrument that the surgeon can manipulate. In this report, we describe our experience with the da Vinci robot with a fourth arm modification for the performance of selected surgical procedures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of six patients were prospectively enrolled and underwent surgery using the modified da Vinci robot. Their average age was 56 years. Five patients underwent Nissen fundoplication, and one patient underwent Heller myotomy. Operative time, defined as the time from skin incision to completed skin closure, as well as robotic time, defined as the time during which the robot was being used, were recorded. Intra-operative and perioperative complications were also recorded. RESULTS: Average operative and robotic times for Nissen fundoplication were 134 and 80 minutes, respectively. Operative and robotic times for the Heller myotomy were 118 and 70 minutes. All patients tolerated the procedure well and experienced no perioperative complications. CONCLUSIONS: The da Vinci robot with the addition of the fourth arm results in a efficient and safe operation and allows the surgeon to perform additional maneuvers without the use of a surgical assistant.     

Advantages of using robotic Da Vinci system for unilateral adrenalectomy: early results

STUDY AIM: The goal of this study was to report the early results of unilateral transperitoneal adrenalectomy using robotic Da Vinci system, and to compare them to the results of the laparoscopic standard adrenalectomy. METHODS: Prospective study included all patients operated on for unilateral laparoscopic or robotic adrenalectomy from November 2000 to November 2002. RESULTS: Twenty-eight patients underwent unilateral adrenalectomy using either standard laparoscopy (14 patients) or robotic Da Vinci system (14 patients). Mean duration of robotic adrenalectomy seemed to be longer than standard laparoscopy (111 vs. 83 min; P = 0.057). This tendency decreased while surgeons' experience was increasing. Mean duration of operating room activity was similar for both types of surgery. Peroperative events without conversion, conversion rate (7%), drainage, morbidity (21%), duration of hospitalisation were similar for both types of surgery. Duration of standard laparoscopic adrenalectomy was positively correlated to patients body mass index. This correlation was absent in patients operated on by robotic Da Vinci system. CONCLUSION: This preliminary study found no objective data demonstrating that robotic Da Vinci system was superior to standard laparoscopic approach for unilateral adrenalectomy. However, we think that it is necessary to continue further evaluation of this system to demonstrate its possible superiority.     

应用达芬奇机器人手术系统治疗低位直肠癌

The first few cases of colonic surgery using Da Vinci surgical system were reported in 2002;since then,Da Vinci surgical system has gradually been used in several centers for rectal cancer and with favorable outcomes.Laparoscopy has opened a new era in modern surgery,however,the inherent limitations of traditional laparoscopic surgery may cause certain difficulties during manipulation,especially in the demanding field of colonic laparoscopic surgery,which prolonged the learning curve.The advantages of Da Vinci surgical system include stable camera platform,three-dimensional imaging,excellent ergonomics,tremor elimination,ambidextrous capability,motion scaling,and instruments with multiple degrees of freedom.Low rectal region was regarded as the"forbidden zone"for laparoscopy,so we applied the Da Vinci surgical system in low anterior resection for rectal cancer.Because of mulyiquadrant operations in low anterior resection of rectal cancer,moving the robotic cart twice during the operation is necessary,which increased the operation time.In order to solve the problem,many surgeons use conventional laparoscopy for vessel ligation and flexure mobilization,and adopt the Da Vinci surgical system only in the lower quadrant of the abdomen.We present a technique that allows for the complete isolation of the mesorectum from the same position of the robotic cart,during the process,the enhanced dexterity and precise dissection offered by the Da Vinci surgical system were fully utilized.     

Early experiences of robotic surgery in children

Background: Laparoscopic surgery using a robotic system (Da Vinci) was recently introduced into surgical practice for adult patients. To investigate the feasibility of this system in pediatric surgery, laparoscopic fundoplication (Thal and Nissen), cholecystectomy, and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy were performed. Methods: Eleven children with a mean age of 12 years (range, 7–16 years) underwent either laparoscopic anterior partial fundoplication (Thal, n = 8) or Nissen fundoplication (n = 3) for correction of gastroesophageal reflux disease in the presence of uncontrolled symptoms of regurgitation and pulmonary infection. Two children underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy due to symptomatic cholecystolithiasis. One child underwent bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy due to a gonadoblastoma. Results: Mean operating time for fundoplication was 146 min (range, l05–180 min), the operating times for cholecystectomy were 150 and 105 min, and that for salpingo-oophorectomy was 95 min. No complications were registered during either the robotic procedures or the postoperative courses. Conclusions: Compared to conventional laparoscopy, the three-dimensional high-quality vision, advanced instrument movement, and improved ergonomic position of the surgeon appear to enhance surgical precision. Robotic surgery in children using the Da Vinci system seems to be feasible and safe. However, the technique is limited due to the fact that instruments adapted to the size of small children are not available. Furthermore, the high costs and prolonged system setup are disadvantages.     

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??Robotic versus laparoscopic anterior resection for rectal cancer: A comparative study of short-term outcomes DU Xiao-hui. Department of General Surgery??Chinese PLA General Hospital??Beijing 100853??China
Abstract Objective To investigate the safety and short-term outcomes of da Vinci robotic surgical system in rectal cancer radical surgery. Methods The clinical data of 78 patients who underwent da Vinci robotic rectal anterior resection (robotic group) and 156 patients who underwent laparoscopy-assisted rectal anterior resection (laparoscopic group) from January 2012 to December 2015 in Chinese PLA General Hospital were compared retrospectively. Evaluation was focused on clinicopathological characteristics and short-term outcomes. Results The blood loss was significant less in the robotic group than that in the laparoscopic group ???53.9±12.4??mL vs.??75.7±58.6??mL??P=0.000??. The operating time was longer in the robotic group than that in the laparoscopic group ???208.5±118.5?? min vs.??173.7±35.4??min??P=0.003??. There was no significant difference in the time of first flatus passage??the time of first diet??the time of removing the urinary catheter??the number of retrieved lymph nodes??the postoperative complications and the length of stay??P>0.05??. In addition??the cost of surgery was significant higher in robotic group in comparison with the laparoscopic group ??(84.0±13.1) thousands yuan vs. (69.6±12.7) thousands yuan??P=0.004??. Conclusion Da Vinci robotic system is safe and feasible for patients with rectal cancer. The short-term outcomes of the robotic anterior resection of rectal cancer is identical to those of the laparoscopic operation. The long-term oncologic outcomes need the further evaluation??     

Robotic-assisted minimally invasive transhiatal esophagectomy

Minimally invasive surgery has been increasing in its adaptability to a wide range of procedures. Initially used in general surgery for cholecystectomy its use has now expanded to include Nissen fundoplications, Heller myotomies, donor nephrectomies, and total esophagectomies. Technological advancements have evolved to include robotic systems for performance of complex surgical procedures. We report on our experience of using robotic-assisted technology to perform a transhiatal total esophagectomy.     

Robot-assisted laparoscopic rectovaginopexy for rectal prolapse: a prospective cohort study on feasibility and safety

Robotic systems may be particularly supportive for procedures requiring careful pelvic dissection and suturing in the Douglas pouch, as in surgery for rectal prolapse. Studies reporting robot-assisted laparoscopic rectovaginopexy for rectal prolapse, however, are scarce. This prospective cohort study evaluated the outcome of this technique up to one year after surgery. From January 2005 to June 2006, 15 consecutive patients with a rectal prolapse, either with or without a concomitant rectocele or enterocele, underwent robot-assisted laparoscopic rectovaginopexy with support of the da Vinci robotic system. A prospective cohort study was performed on operating times, blood loss, intra-operative and post-operative complications, and outcome at a minimum of one year after surgery. Median age at time of operation was 62 years (33–72) and median body mass index 24.9 (20.9–33.9). Median robot set-up time was 10 min (3–15) and median skin-to-skin operating time was 160 min (120–180). No conversions to open surgery were necessary. No in-hospital complications occurred and there was no mortality. Median hospital stay was four days (2–9). During one year follow-up, two patients needed surgical reintervention. One patient was operated for recurrent enterocele and rectocele one week after surgery. In another patient an incisional hernia at the camera port occurred three months after surgery. At one year after surgery, 87% of patients claimed to be satisfied with their postoperative result. Robot-assisted laparoscopic rectovaginopexy proved to be an effective technique with favourable outcomes in most patients in this prospective series. The operating team experienced the support of the robotic system as beneficial, especially during the dissection of the rectovaginal plane and suturing in the Douglas pouch.     

达芬奇机器人手术系统辅助下腔静脉滤器取出术的临床疗效

目的达芬奇机器人手术系统辅助下下腔静脉滤器取出术的临床疗效。 方法采用回顾性描述性研究方法,收集2019年7月陆军军医大学西南医院血管外科收治的亚洲首例行达芬奇机器人手术系统辅助下下腔静脉滤器取出术患者的临床资料。患者下腔静脉滤器置入术后2个月余,血管腔内技术无法取出下腔静脉中的滤器,在达芬奇机器人手术系统辅助下取出下腔静脉滤器。观察指标：术中及术后情况;随访及生存情况。采用门诊进行随访,了解患者术后生存情况。随访时间截至2019年8月。 结果患者成功行达芬奇机器人手术系统辅助下下腔静脉滤器取出术。手术时间326 min,术中出血量100 ml,完成下腔静脉滤器取出术后,下腔静脉切口吻合良好,无出血及狭窄,无术中并发症发生。患者术后住院时间3 d。随访及生存情况：患者术后随访1个月,腹部穿刺套管孔愈合良好,患者生存良好。 结论达芬奇机器人手术系统辅助下下腔静脉滤器取出术安全可行。     

机器人与腹腔镜直肠癌前切除术近期疗效对比研究

目的 比较分析达芬奇机器人手术系统应用于直肠癌手术的安全性及近期疗效。方法 回顾性分析中国人民解放军总医院2012年1月至2015年12月行达芬奇机器人直肠癌前切除术的78例直肠癌病人（机器人组）的临床资料,以同期行腹腔镜直肠癌前切除术的156例直肠癌病人（腹腔镜组）作为对照,对比分析临床病理因素及近期疗效。结果 机器人组较腹腔镜组术中出血明显减少［（53.9±12.4）mL vs.（75.7±58.6）mL,P=0.000］,但手术时间延长［（208.5±118.5） min vs.（173.7±35.4）min,P=0.003］。两组病人术后排气时间、恢复进食时间、留置导尿时间、淋巴结清扫数、术后并发症、术后住院时间等方面差异均无统计学意义（P>0.05）。机器人组手术费用明显高于腹腔镜组［（8.4±1.3）万元 vs.（7.0±1.3）万元,P=0.004］。结论 达芬奇机器人直肠癌前切除术安全可行,与腹腔镜手术具有相同的近期疗效,远期疗效须进一步研究。     

达芬奇机器人在小儿外科手术中的应用（附20例报告）

目的 达芬奇机器人手术系统具有独特的优势,是当前微创外科手术的前沿领域。本文通过回顾分析和总结我中心在机器人辅助下完成小儿外科手术资料,为今后深入开展机器人小儿外科手术提供经验和参考。方法 2007～2012年,我中心累积采用机器人辅助完成小儿外科手术20例（男女各10例;平均年龄10.7岁）。手术包括9例胃底折叠术、5例肾盂成形术、2例胆总管囊肿切除术、2例食管部分切除术、1例输尿管膀胱再植术和1例可控性尿流改道术。结果 9例胃底折叠平均手术时间为220.1 min,5例肾盂成形平均手术时间为204.2 min。1例胆总管囊肿术中因组织分离困难而中转开腹。1例先天性食管狭窄伴食管气管瘘行食管部分切除术后2周复发,经二次手术治愈。结论机器人手术是小儿微创外科治疗的有效手段。仍需对患儿长期随访,以进一步评估机器人手术的远期效果。     

Reprints of: Robotic colorectal surgery: Evolution and future

The introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy changed the approach to abdominal surgery revealing the patient-specific advantages of minimally invasive approaches to gastrointestinal diseases. Unfortunately, inherent limitations of laparoscopy impeded widespread utilization of laparoscopic surgery in advanced procedures such as laparoscopic colectomy. Even as prospective and randomized trials demonstrated outcomes advantages for the patient, few surgeons introduced laparoscopic colectomy into their practice. Robotic surgery has offered solutions to these inherent limitations of laparoscopic surgery. Yulan Wang and Computer Motion introduced the first FDA approved robotic surgery assistant, AESOP. This robot responded to foot controls and subsequently oral commands providing tremor free reliable video-laparoscopic camera control. As video-laparoscopic colorectal surgery evolved, Colorectal Surgeons were plagued with the intrinsic limitations of laparoscopic surgery, such as motion reversal and motion amplification of the surgical instruments caused by the fulcrum effect of the abdominal wall trocar. Using Department of Defense grants and venture capital funding, two surgical technology companies, Computer Motion and Intuitive Surgery developed robotic surgical systems to overcome these limitations, Zeus and da Vinci, respectively. Although these robotic surgical systems were intended to perform remote battle-field surgery with the surgeon stationed on an aircraft carrier or remote MASH Hospital, state licensing issues and malpractice concerns prompted both companies to focus on surgery with the patient, surgeon and robot in the same operating room. Zeus gained FDA approval first and Da Vinci followed shortly after. Eventually patent conundrums proved only solvable by Intuitive buying out Computer Motion leading to a consolidation of the technology from both companies into the subsequent generations of Da Vinci. More recently, as Intuitive׳s patents begin to expire, new robotic surgery companies are entering the market with surgical robots targeting specific niches in the future robotic surgery market. In particular, MedRobotics, for example, will soon introduce a surgical robot given FDA approval for transanal resections of neoplastic lesions. Similarly, Titan will enter the market with a surgical robot at a substantially lower price-point that the da Vinci. Clearly, surgical robotic options for colorectal patients will continue to expand in the near future. The long-term use of these technologies, of course, will require a long period of prospective and randomized clinical trials.     

Application of robotics in general surgery: initial experience

Robotic surgery was recently approved for clinical use in general abdominal surgery. The aim of this study was to review our experience with the da Vinci surgical system during laparoscopic general surgical procedures. Eighteen patients underwent robotically assisted laparoscopic abdominal surgery between June 2002 and March 2003. Main outcome measures were operative time, room setup time, robotic arm-positioning and surgical time, blood loss, conversion to laparoscopy, length of stay, and morbidity. The types of robotically assisted laparoscopic procedures were excision of gastric leiomyoma (n = 1), Heller myotomy (n = 1), cholecystectomy (n = 2), gastric banding (n = 2), Nissen fundoplication (n = 4), and gastric bypass (n = 8). The mean room setup time was 63 +/- 14 minutes, and the mean robotic arm-positioning time was 16 +/- 7 minutes. Conversion to laparoscopy occurred in two (11%) of 18 cases because of equipment difficulty (n = 1) and technical difficulty (n = 1). Estimated blood loss was 91 +/- 71 mL. The mean operative time was 156 +/- 42 minutes, and the robotic operative time was 27% of the total operative time. The mean length of hospital stay was 2.2 +/- 1.5 days. There was one postoperative wound infection and one anastomotic stricture. Robotically assisted laparoscopic abdominal surgery is feasible and safe; however, the theoretical advantages of the da Vinci surgical system were not clinically apparent.     

达芬奇机器人在胃肠手术中的应用与发展

达芬奇机器人手术系统由于具有除颤,三维视野及操作灵活等优点,在胃肠外科领域,逐步应用于胃癌根治术、结直肠癌根治术、胃底折叠术、Heller肌切开术、减肥手术和小肠手术等手术中,取得了满意的临床疗效。相对于传统的腹腔镜与开腹手术,机器人手术操作更精准、灵活,有明显的微创优势,具有良好的应用价值与前景,但仍存在手术时间较长,手术费用高等不足需进一步改进,应用于胃癌、结直肠癌手术的远期疗效尚需进一步的观察研究。     

达芬奇机器人辅助腹腔镜前列腺癌根治术的手术要点（附光盘）

达芬奇机器人手术系统在泌尿外科领域的广泛应用和发展是当今世界临床医学发展的里程碑。达芬奇机器人辅助腹腔镜前列腺癌根治术（robot-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy,RLRP）是所有泌尿外科机器人手术中,与开放和传统腹腔镜手术相比最具明显优势的微创手术。目前在前列腺癌高发的欧美国家,RLRP几乎成为治疗局限性前列腺癌的金标准,在国内RLRP也已取得快速发展。本文就机器人手术系统的国内外发展状况和发展趋势,RLRP的适应证和禁忌证、手术步骤和技巧、优缺点等做一概述。     

Laparoscopic transperitoneal adrenalectomy using a remote-controlled robotic surgical system

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Laparoscopic adrenalectomy is considered the standard method for removal of benign adrenal tumors. Although laparoscopic surgery provides clear patient benefit, laparoscopic adrenalectomy using conventional instrumentation is complex. Our objective was to evaluate whether the da Vinci trade mark Surgical System, a comprehensive robotic endoscopic surgical device, could be used effectively to perform laparoscopic adrenalectomy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Through a transperitoneal approach, three right and one left adrenal tumors were removed in four patients using this method. RESULTS: There were no complications, and the clinical results were excellent. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate the feasibility of performing laparoscopic adrenalectomy exclusively by using robotic telepresent technology from a remote workstation. The da Vinci System enables conventionally trained urologic surgeons to perform complex minimally invasive procedures with ease and precision. Therefore, we are convinced that the system helps the urologist to adapt the whole spectrum of laparoscopic procedure in this field.