Potential adverse effects of spinal immobilization in children

Abstract Objective. The purpose of our study was to describe potential adverse effects associated with spinal immobilization following trauma among children. Methods. We conducted a prospective cohort study of children presenting to the emergency department (ED) for evaluation following trauma over a 13-month period. Children were eligible if they underwent spinal immobilization prior to physician evaluation or if they met the American College of Surgeons (ACS) guidelines for spinal immobilization but were not immobilized. We compared children who were immobilized with those who were not immobilized for self-reported pain, use of radiography to evaluate the cervical spine, ED length of stay, and ED disposition. We also report the characteristics of the cohort. Results. One hundred seventy-three spine-immobilized children and 112 children who met ACS criteria but were not immobilized were enrolled. There were differences between the two study groups, which included age, mechanism of injury, and proportion transported by emergency medical services. However, the comparison groups had comparable Pediatric Trauma Scores (PTSs) and Glasgow Coma Scale scores (GCSs). Immobilized children had a higher median pain score (3 versus 2) and were more likely to undergo cervical radiography (56.6% versus 13.4%) and be admitted to the hospital (41.6% versus 14.3%). The comparison groups had similar lengths of stay in the ED. Conclusion. Despite presenting with comparable PTSs and GCSs, children who underwent spinal immobilization following trauma had a higher degree of self-reported pain, and were much more likely to undergo radiographic cervical spine clearance and be admitted to the hospital than those who were not immobilized. Future studies are warranted to determine whether these differences are related to spinal immobilization or differences in the mechanisms of injury, injury patterns, or other variables.     

Efficacy and compliance of a prehospital spinal immobilization guideline

Background

Prehospital spinal immobilization criteria are useful in identifying those at risk for spinal fractures, while reducing the number of patients unnecessarily immobilized. The use of immobilization criteria, without regard to mechanism of injury, has been shown to accomplish this task.

Aims

The study’s purpose is to examine efficacy of a prehospital spinal clearance guideline and triage/management of these injuries.

Methods

This was a retrospective study of traumatically injured patients based on a clinical clearance spinal immobilization guideline between January 2006 and January 2007. Two gold standards were used in the analysis (radiographic findings and physician clearance without radiographs). This project was approved by the Mayo Clinic Institutional Review Board.

Results

The study included 942 patients documented to have a traumatic injury. Of these, 43 (4.6%) had an acute spinal fracture. The guideline allowed 558 (59.2%) patients to be cleared, and 1.3% (7/558) had fractures. The remaining 384 did not meet clearance criteria and accounted for 36 (9.4%, 36/384) fractures. The guideline correctly predicted 36 of 43 fractures. The median age of the 7 fractures not immobilized was 82 years and of the 36 patients with fractures that were immobilized was 48 years. When immobilization was indicated, caregivers were 77.6% (298/384) compliant. Of the noncompliant 22.4% (86/384) there were 9 fractures.

Conclusions

This spinal guideline demonstrates efficacy in identifying those at risk for spinal fractures. An age extreme criteria may enhance this already effective guideline. Further analysis of compliance failures may improve the guideline’s ability for fracture prediction.     

The kendrick extrication device used for pediatric spinal immobilization

Immobilizing a child presents a unique challenge for emergency medical services (EMS) personnel in addition to those challenges faced when immobilizing an adult. Most equipment commonly carried by EMS personnel is sized for adult use and as a result does not routinely provide adequate static or dynamic immobilization of a child. In addition, children often resist immobilization and can free themselves from standard strapping techniques. These problems have led to the modification of existing equipment and the development of several pediatric-specific devices. An ideal pediatric immobilization device would be one that uses an existing piece of equipment, is of limited additional cost, is routinely used by EMS providers, could be easily modified to immobilize a child, could easily be taught to EMS providers, and provides excellent static and dynamic immobilization. The Kendrick extrication device (KED) used as the authors describe meets these goals of an ideal pediatric immobilization device.     

Changes in physical examination caused by use of spinal immobilization

The standard of care for patients following blunt trauma includes midline palpation of vertebrae to rule out fractures. Previous studies have demonstrated that spinal immobilization does cause discomfort. Objective. To determine whether spinal immobilization causes changes in physical exam findings over time. Methods. This was a single-blinded, prospective study at a tertiary care university teaching hospital. Twenty healthy volunteers without previous back pain or injuries, 13 male and seven female, were fully immobilized for one hour, with a cervical collar and strapped to a long wooden backboard. Midline palpation of vertebrae to illicit pain was performed at 10-minute intervals. In addition, the participants were asked to rate neck and back pain on a scale from 1 to 10 (1 for no pain, and 10 for unbearable pain), to see whether subjective pain from immobilization correlated with tenderness to palpation. Results. Three patients had point tenderness of cervical vertebrae within 40 minutes. Five patients developed point tenderness of vertebrae by 60 minutes. Eighteen of 20 participants complained of increasing discomfort over time. The median initial pain scale was 1 (range 1-1), in contrast to 4 (range 1-9) at 60 minutes, p < 0.05. Conclusion. This study shows that over time, standard immobilization causes a false-positive exam for midline vertebral tenderness. In order to reduce this high false-positive rate for midline vertebral tenderness, the authors recommend that, initially on arrival to the emergency department, immediate evaluation occur of all immobilized patients. Furthermore, backboards should be modified to reduce patient discomfort to prevent the iatrogenically induced midline vertebral tenderness, thereby reducing subsequent false-positive examinations. PREHOSPITAL EMERGENCY CARE 2002;6:421-424     

Selective spinal injections for lower back pain

Tremendous progress has been made in the understanding of neural pathways and tissues involved in back pain, and new treatment techniques for back pain have evolved. This article focuses on a technique called epidural neuroplasty (lysis of epidural adhesions). Originally performed as a single-catheter technique using the caudal approach, this technique now features a number of variations. These variations include emphasis on anterior placement of the catheter tip, use of a transforaminal approach, and use of one or two catheters.     

A comparison of pulmonary complications in spinal cord-injured patients treated with two modes of spinal immobilization

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of two modes of spinal immobilization, the kinetic treatment table (KTT) and the traditionally used wedge turning device (WTD) on the development of pulmonary complications in two groups of acutely spinal cord-injured (SCI) clients. Variables examined included incidence of pulmonary infection, length of requirement of mechanical ventilation, length of intensive care unit (ICU) stay and length of hospitalization. Results indicated that those clients treated with the KTT experienced a lower incidence of pulmonary infection (p less than 0.05) and required less time on mechanical ventilation (p less than 0.05) than those subjects in the WTD group. Length of ICU stay and length of hospitalization were not significantly influenced by the mode of spinal immobilization.     

Comparison of a vacuum splint device to a rigid backboard for spinal immobilization

In this study, comparison of a vacuum splint device to a rigid backboard was made with respect to comfort, speed of application, and degree of immobilization. The study was a prospective, nonblinded comparative study conducted at a statewide emergency medical services (EMS) training facility and included a convenience sample of emergency medical technician (EMT) and paramedic students. The vacuum splint was judged to be significantly more comfortable on a 10-point scale than the rigid backboard after subjects had been lying on each device for 30 minutes (P < .001). It was also faster to apply: 131.6 ± 24.3 seconds versus 154.6 ± 22.2 seconds (P < .001). Various measures of immobilization were similar for the two devices. The vacuum splint provided better immobilization of the torso and less slippage on a gradual lateral tilt. The rigid backboard with head blocks was slightly better at immobilizing the head. Vacuum splints offer a significant improvement in comfort over a traditional backboard for the patient with possible spinal injury. They can be applied in reasonable time frames and provide a similar degree of immobilization when compared to a standard rigid backboard.     

脊髓损伤早期及制动大鼠股骨干骺端的显微CT观察

背景：脊髓损伤后可引起损伤平面以下骨量大量丢失,导致骨质疏松。目的：观察比较脊髓损伤及失用性制动模型大鼠股骨远端骨密度及骨微观结构的改变。方法：将SD大鼠随机分为3组：对照组,切除T10椎板,不损伤硬膜及脊髓;脊髓损伤组,切除T10椎板后行Allen＇s法造成脊髓损伤;制动组,以大鼠双侧腿-尾缝合造成双下肢制动。10d后取一侧尺、桡骨及股骨行骨密度检测,另一侧股骨行显微CT扫描。结果与结论：脊髓损伤组与制动组大鼠股骨远端骨密度、骨矿物质含量、骨体积分数表、骨小梁厚度、骨皮质面积及厚度、骨小梁数量均低于对照组（P〈0.05）,骨小梁结构模型指数、骨表面积体积比、骨小梁分离度均高于对照组;脊髓损伤组上述指标较制动组变化程度更显著（P〈0.05）。3组尺、桡骨密度差异无显著性意义。说明脊髓损伤及制动均可导致骨量丢失,在脊髓损伤早期损伤平面以下部位骨微观结构呈现骨质疏松明显改变,且程度比失用性因素严重。     

Maximizing comfort and minimizing ischemia: A comparison of four methods of spinal immobilization

Objective. To determine which of four methods of spinal immobilization causes the least ischemic pain. Methods. A prospective, nonblinded comparative trial was conducted at a statewide emergency medical services training facility using a convenience sample of emergency medical technician students. After lying motionless for 10 minutes, students evaluated each device using a 10-centimeter visual analog scale. Subjective comfort was used as a measure of ischemia. Results. Comfort scores were significantly different for all methods (F = 101, p 1 < 0.001). A backboard padded with a gurney mattress and eggcrate foam (the equivalent of a spinal rehabilitation bed) caused the least ischemic pain (9.6 cm, 95% CI, 8.9 to 9.8 cm). A backboard padded with a gurney mattress was the second most comfortable device (7.0 cm, 95% CI, 6.4 to 7.4 cm). A backboard padded with a folded blanket was the third most comfortable (3.3 cm, 95% CI, 2.6 to 4.9 cm). The backboard alone caused the most pain (0.8 cm, 95% CI, 0.7 to 2.1 cm). Conclusion. Increasing the amount of padding on a backboard decreased the amount of ischemic pain caused by immobilization. PREHOSPITAL EMERGENCY CARE 2000;4:250-252     

脊髓损伤早期及制动大鼠股骨干骺端的显微CT观察

背景:脊髓损伤后可引起损伤平面以下骨量大量丢失,导致骨质疏松。目的:观察比较脊髓损伤及失用性制动模型大鼠股骨远端骨密度及骨微观结构的改变。方法:将SD大鼠随机分为3组:对照组,切除T10椎板,不损伤硬膜及脊髓;脊髓损伤组,切除T10椎板后行Allen’s法造成脊髓损伤;制动组,以大鼠双侧腿-尾缝合造成双下肢制动。10d后取一侧尺、桡骨及股骨行骨密度检测,另一侧股骨行显微CT扫描。结果与结论:脊髓损伤组与制动组大鼠股骨远端骨密度、骨矿物质含量、骨体积分数表、骨小梁厚度、骨皮质面积及厚度、骨小梁数量均低于对照组(P<0.05),骨小梁结构模型指数、骨表面积体积比、骨小梁分离度均高于对照组;脊髓损伤组上述指标较制动组变化程度更显著(P<0.05)。3组尺、桡骨密度差异无显著性意义。说明脊髓损伤及制动均可导致骨量丢失,在脊髓损伤早期损伤平面以下部位骨微观结构呈现骨质疏松明显改变,且程度比失用性因素严重。     

In search of the most suitable technique for truncal spinal immobilization with associated radiography.

The spineboard (SB) and the vacuum mattress (VM) are utilized for prehospital and emergency department (ED) immobilization of the spine. While permitting excellent pictures to be taken, the SB is a very painful device that can only be used for a limited time. The current study investigated the feasibility of different models of the VM for radiography. Computed tomography for each of seven VMs showed different degrees of shadows from the sac containing the polystyrole balls. This was related first of all to a high contrast of the sac in comparison with its contents and to a sometimes considerable shrinkage of the latter that resulted in further folding into the sac and, secondly, also to very broad mattresses, additional chambers within the VM and various grips and supports for lifting the mattress. Therefore, some features designed for prehospital use of the VM are actually acting against its use for diagnostic purposes. The aim of this study was to discuss and identify possible properties of a device that is useful for both immobilization and diagnostic purposes.     

The effects of neutral positioning with and without padding on spinal immobilization of healthy subjects

Objectives. To compare the incidences and severities of pain experienced by healthy volunteers undergoing spinal immobilization in the neutral position with and without occipital padding. To compare the incidence of pain when immobilized in the neutral position with the incidence in a nonneutral position. Methods. Thirty-nine healthy volunteers over the age of 18 years who had no acute pain or illness, were not pregnant, and had no history of back problems or surgery voluntarily participated in a prospective, randomized, crossover study conducted in a clinical laboratory setting. Appropriately sized rigid cervical collars were applied to the subjects, who were then immobilized on wooden backboards with their cervical spines maintained in the neutral position using towels (padded) or plywood (unpadded) under their occiputs. The subjects were secured to the board with straps, soft head blocks, and tape for 15 minutes to simulate a typical ambulance transport time. The straps, head blocks, and tape were removed, and the subjects remained on the board for an additional 45 minutes to simulate a typical emergency department experience. The subjects were then asked to identify the location(s) of any pain on anterior and posterior body outlines and to indicate the corresponding severity of pain on a 10-cm visual analog scale. The subjects were also asked questions about movement, respiratory symptoms, and strap discomfort in an attempt to distract them from the true focus of the study (i.e., pain). A similar survey was given to each participant to complete 24 hours later. The same subjects were immobilized with the alternate occipital material a minimum of two weeks later utilizing the same procedure. They again completed both surveys. Results. Pain was reported by 76.9% of the subjects following removal from the backboard for the unpadded trial and 69.2% of the subjects following the padded trial (p < 0.45). Twenty-three percent (23.1%) of the subjects reported neck pain after the unpadded trial, while 38.5% reported neck pain after the padded trial (p < 0.07). Occipital pain was reported by 35.9% in the unpadded trial and 25.6% in the padded trial (p < 0.29). Twenty-four hours later, pain was reported by 17.9% of the subjects following the unpadded trial and 23.1% of the subjects following the padded trial (p < 0.63). Eight percent (7.7%) reported neck pain 24 hours after the unpadded trial and 12.8% after the padded trial (p < 0.5). Occipital pain was reported by 7.7% of the subjects 24 hours after the unpadded trial and 2.6% after the padded trial (p < 0.63). This study had a power of 0.90 to detect a difference of 30% between the trials. The authors found a significantly lower incidence of pain (p < 0.01) and occipital pain (p < 0.01) in their unpadded trial compared with that reported by Chan et al., who used neither padding nor neutral positioning to immobilize subjects. Conclusions. Pain is frequently reported by healthy volunteers following spinal immobilization. Occipital padding does not appear to significantly decrease the incidence or severity of pain. Alignment of the cervical spine in the neutral position may reduce the incidence of pain, but further studies should be conducted to substantiate this observation.     

Effects of prehospital spinal immobilization: a systematic review of randomized trials on healthy subjects

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of spinal immobilization on healthy participants. METHODS: A systematic review of randomized, controlled trials of spinal immobilization on healthy participants. RESULTS: Seventeen randomized, controlled trials compared different types of immobilization devices, including collars, backboards, splints, and body strapping. For immobilization efficacy, collars, spine boards, vacuum splints, and abdominal/torso strapping provided a significant reduction in spinal movement. Adverse effects of spinal immobilization included a significant increase in respiratory effort, skin ischemia, pain, and discomfort. CONCLUSIONS: Data from this review provide the best available evidence to support the well-recognized efficacy and potential adverse effects of spinal immobilization. However, comparisons of different immobilization strategies on trauma victims must be considered in order to establish an evidence base for this practice.     

Bone mineral and geometric changes through the femur with immobilization due to spinal cord injury

This cross-sectional study describes bone mineral and geometric properties of the midshaft and distal femur in a control population and examines effects of immobilization due to spinal cord injury (SCI) at these skeletal sites. The subject populations were comprised of 118 ambulatory adults (59 men and 59 women) and 246 individuals with SCI (239 men and 7 women); 30 of these were considered to have acute injury (SCI duration <1 year). Bone mineral density (BMD) was assessed at the femoral neck, and midshaft and distal femur by dual energy absorptiometry. Geometric properties, specifically cortical area, polar moment of inertia, and polar section modulus, were estimated at the midshaft from cortical dimensions obtained by concurrent radiography. Reduction in BMD was noted in all femoral regions (27%, 25%, and 43% for femoral neck, midshaft, and distal femur, respectively) compared with controls. In contrast, although endosteal diameter was enlarged, geometric properties were not significantly reduced in the midshaft attributable to the age-related increase in periosteal diameter. These results suggest that simultaneous assessment of bone mineral and geometric properties may improve clinically relevant evaluation of skeletal status.