Limiting the Impacts of Foot and Mouth Disease in Large Ruminants in Northern Lao People’s Democratic Republic by Vaccination: A Case Study

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most important global transboundary livestock disease and is endemic in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) with outbreaks occurring regularly. Lao PDR shares borders with five countries and as a major thoroughfare for transboundary livestock movement, is vulnerable to the social and economic impacts of FMD. The FMD outbreak occurred in January 2009 in the Pek District, located in the north‐eastern Lao PDR province of Xieng Khuang and involved all 111 villages in that district. In March 2009, we conducted a case study on the impacts of FMD in four villages in Pek District. In two villages cattle and buffalo were vaccinated for FMD recently and prior to the outbreak as part of an ongoing research project. In one of these villages, all cattle and buffalo were vaccinated and just over half the large ruminant population was vaccinated in the other village. The other two villages involved in the case study were located nearby but not part of the ongoing research project and no animals had been vaccinated. Data were collected from the four villages by interviewing the village animal health worker in each village using a standard questionnaire. Morbidity rates for the fully vaccinated village were 1% and 7.9% for the partially vaccinated village and were much lower compared with the two adjacent, unvaccinated villages where morbidity rates were 61% and 74.3% respectively. Estimates of the financial losses incurred were USD 1.7–1.9 per cow or buffalo for the fully vaccinated village, USD 6.9–8.1 for the partly vaccinated village and 52.4–70.8 USD in the unvaccinated villages, providing evidence that a large opportunity cost is incurred by failing to vaccinate in areas where the risk of FMD incursions is high.     

Assessment of Financial Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease on Smallholder Cattle Farmers in Southern Cambodia

The financial impact of an outbreak of FMD in 2010 on 62 smallholder cattle farmers in four villages in southern Cambodia was investigated by a financial impact survey questionnaire. Financial losses associated with FMD infection were severe with variation depending on whether the animal survived or died or was used for draft. The average post‐FMD loss varied from USD 216.32, a 54% reduction from the pre‐FMD value because of weight loss and treatment costs, to USD 370.54, a 92% reduction from pre‐FMD values if the animal was treated, died and a rental draft replacement was required. Partial budget analysis identified a strongly positive incentive for cattle to be vaccinated biannually for FMD, providing USD 31.48 per animal for each animal owned. However low vaccination rates suggest that farmers are mostly unaware of the need or averse to the practice of vaccinating their cattle for FMD. This may be due to poor understanding of preventative disease strategies such as vaccination, unavailable disposable income for purchase of vaccines, and failure to recognize the full costs that are incurred when the disease occurs. Enhancing smallholder cattle productivity through the introduction of forage growing systems has been suggested as a pathway for alleviating rural poverty in the Mekong region. As our financial analysis identified a net benefit of vaccination for smallholder farmer enterprises in an endemic FMD area in Cambodia, it is considered important that farmer education strategies aimed at improving cattle productivity, also include both access to vaccine and training in preventative disease risk management and biosecurity practices in Cambodia.     

Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Vaccination in South Sudan: Benefit–Cost Analysis and Livelihoods Impact

A benefit–cost analysis of vaccination for foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) was conducted in an area of South Sudan, which due to chronic conflict, had been subject to large‐scale humanitarian assistance for many years. The study used participatory epidemiology (PE) methods to estimate the prevalence and mortality of acute and chronic FMD in different age groups of cattle, and the reduction in milk off‐take in cows affected by FMD. The benefit–cost of FMD vaccination was 11.5. Losses due to the chronic form of FMD accounted for 28.2% of total FMD losses, indicating that future benefit–cost analyses for FMD control in pastoral and agropastoral areas of Africa need to consider losses caused by chronic disease. Participatory epidemiological methods were also used to assess the importance of milk in the diet of Nuer agropastoralists, and seasonal variations in diet in relation to cattle movements and FMD outbreaks. Marked seasonal variation in diet included a ‘hunger gap’ period during which households were highly dependent on milk as their main source of food. Outbreaks of FMD occurred immediately before this period of milk dependency, with chronic losses extending through this period and affecting human food security. The paper discusses the need and feasibility of mass vaccination and strategic vaccination for FMD in South Sudan. The paper also discusses the value of combining conventional benefit–cost analysis with livelihoods analysis to inform disease control efforts and funding commitments in humanitarian contexts.     

Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Virus Serotype O Phylodynamics: Genetic Variability Associated with Epidemiological Factors in Pakistan

One of the most challenging aspects of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) control is the high genetic variability of the FMD virus (FMDV). In endemic settings such as the Indian subcontinent, this variability has resulted in the emergence of pandemic strains that have spread widely and caused devastating outbreaks in disease‐free areas. In countries trying to control and eradicate FMD using vaccination strategies, the constantly evolving and wide diversity of field FMDV strains is an obstacle for identifying vaccine strains that are successful in conferring protection against infection with field viruses. Consequently, quantitative knowledge on the factors that are associated with variability of the FMDV is prerequisite for preventing and controlling FMD in the Indian subcontinent. A hierarchical linear model was used to assess the association between time, space, host species and the genetic variability of serotype O FMDV using viruses collected in Pakistan from 2005 to 2011. Significant (P < 0.05) amino acid and nucleotide variations were associated with spatial distance, but not with differences in host species, which is consistent with the frequent multi‐species infection of this serotype O FMDV. Results from this study will contribute to the understanding of FMDV variability and to the design of FMD control strategies in Pakistan. Viruses sequenced here also provide the earliest reported isolate from the Pan Asia II^ANT‐10 sublineage, which has caused several outbreaks in the Middle East and spread into Europe (Bulgaria) and Africa (Libya).     

Planning for the Progressive Control of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Worldwide

In the wake of on‐going successful programmes for global eradication of rinderpest and the current effort to contain the spread of avian influenza, the progressive world‐wide control of FMD must be regarded as a major contribution to the international public good. FMD is the single most animal disease constraint to international trade in animal products. Its control is relevant, on the one hand, to protecting the livestock industries of industrialised countries and, on the other, to the livelihoods and income generation of developing countries, where, as a general rule, FMD continues to be endemic. The strategy that is advocated in this paper is one that is based on progressive risk reduction of FMD in the context of progressive market access of livestock commodities from developing countries. It is suggested that FMD control should be linked to improvement in livelihoods of livestock dependent communities in the FMD endemic settings. It is expected that this in turn will lead to increasing demand for effective national veterinary services and disease surveillance. This strategy has also taken lessons from the global rinderpest eradication programme and regional FMD control programmes in Europe and South America. The strategy that is advocated for the progressive control of FMD in the endemic settings is based on a seven stage process within a horizon of about 30 years, namely: (1) Assessing and defining national FMD status; (2) instituting vaccination and movement control; (3) suppressing virus transmission to achieve absence of clinical disease; (4) achieving freedom from FMD with vaccination in accordance with the OIE standards; (5) achieving freedom from FMD without vaccination in accordance with the OIE standards; (6) extending FMD free zones; and (7) maintaining FMD Freedom. Concomitant with progressive FMD control, there needs be the encouragement of such risk reduction measures as in‐country commodity processing in order to encourage regulated trade in livestock commodities without unduly increasing the risk of disease spread. Finally, the progressive control of FMD should also be seen as part of reducing the overall, world‐wide threat of infectious diseases to human health and economic development.     

Characteristics of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Viral Strains Circulating at the Wildlife/livestock Interface of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) inflicts severe economic losses within infected countries and is arguably the most important trade‐restricting livestock disease in the world. In southern Africa, infected African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) are the major reservoir of the South African Territories (SAT) types of the virus. With the progressive expansion of transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs), the risk of FMD outbreaks is expected to increase due to a higher probability of buffalo/livestock contacts. To investigate the dynamics of FMD within and around the Great Limpopo TFCA (GLTFCA), 5 herds of buffaloes were sampled in June 2010 to characterize circulating viruses in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Three SAT‐2 and three SAT‐3 viral strains were isolated in both countries, including one that was genetically linked with a recent SAT‐2 outbreak in Mozambique in 2011. In addition, two groups of unvaccinated cattle (n = 192) were serologically monitored for 1 year at the wildlife/livestock interface of Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) in Zimbabwe between April 2009 and January 2010, using the liquid‐phase blocking ELISA (LPBE) and a test for antibodies directed against non‐structural proteins (NSP). Neither clinical signs nor vaccination of cattle were reported during the study, yet a high proportion of the monitored cattle showed antibody responses against SAT‐3 and SAT‐1. Antibodies against NSP were also detected in 10% of the monitored cattle. The results of this study suggest that cattle grazing in areas adjacent to the GLTFCA can be infected by buffalo or other infected livestock and that cattle trade movements can act as efficient disseminators of FMD viruses to areas several hundred kilometres from the virus source. Current methods of surveillance of FMD at the GLTFCA interface seem insufficient to control for FMD emergence and dissemination and require urgent reassessment and regional coordination.     

The Socioeconomic Impacts of Clinically Diagnosed Haemorrhagic Septicaemia on Smallholder Large Ruminant Farmers in Cambodia

Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) is an acute fatal infectious disease of mainly cattle and buffalo and outbreaks occur commonly in Cambodia. Disease outbreak reports were examined to select five villages from three provinces for a retrospective investigation of HS epidemiology and socioeconomic impact on smallholders, with an aim of identifying potential benefits from improving disease prevention through biosecurity and vaccination. The Village Animal Health Worker (VAHW) or Chief in each village and 66 affected smallholders were surveyed. At the village level, 24% of all households were affected with an estimated mean village herd morbidity of 10.1% and mortality of 28.8%. Affected farmers reported HS disease morbidity and mortality at 42.7% and 63.6% respectively. Buffalo had a higher morbidity (OR = 2.3; P = 0.003) and mortality (OR = 6.9; P < 0.001) compared with cattle, and unvaccinated large ruminants a higher morbidity (OR = 2.9; P = 0.001). The financial impact varied depending on whether the animal survived, provision of treatment, draught replacement and lost secondary income. The mean cost per affected household was USD 952.50 based on ownership of five large ruminants. The impact per affected animal was USD 375.00, reducing the pre‐disease value by 66.1%. A partial budget revealed an overwhelming incentive for farmers to practice biannual vaccination, with a net benefit of USD 951.58 per household based on an annual disease incidence rate of 1. Sensitivity analysis showed that a net benefit of USD 32.42 remained based on an outbreak every 20 years. This study indicates HS can cause a catastrophic financial shock to smallholders and remains a critical constraint to improving large ruminant productivity and profitability. Addressing HS disease control requires a focus on improving smallholder farmer knowledge of biosecurity and vaccination and should be priority to stakeholders interested in addressing regional food insecurity and poverty reduction.     

Financial Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease on Large Ruminant Smallholder Farmers in the Greater Mekong Subregion

A retrospective investigation of financial losses incurred by large ruminant smallholder farmers due to outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in 2010–12 in northern Laos was conducted in 2012. The aim was to support recommendations on sustainable transboundary animal disease control strategies in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS). Large ruminant smallholders in the three northern provinces of Luang Prabang (LPB), Xiengkhoung (XK) and Xayyabouli (XYL) were interviewed (n = 310). Financial losses were determined, including direct losses due to mortality (100% of pre‐FMD sale value) and morbidity (difference between the expected sale price pre‐FMD and 1 month following onset of FMD), and indirect losses due to costs of treatments. The losses due to FMD per household varied between provinces (P < 0.001) and were USD 1124, USD 862 and USD 381 in LPB, XK and XYL, respectively, being 60, 40 and 16% of annual household income. Comparison of the costs of FMD with annual household income from sales of large ruminants indicated losses of 213, 181 and 60% of the income in LPB, XK and XYL, respectively. The variation in losses between provinces was due to differences in levels of morbidity with highest in LPB, treatment methods with antibiotic use common in LPB, age of animals sold and sale prices with higher prices in XK. Partial budget analysis of biannual FMD vaccination indicated an average net benefit of USD 22 and USD 33 for cattle and buffalo, respectively. However, vaccination alone is unlikely to control FMD in the region. Promotion of multiple large ruminant health and production intervention programmes to stimulate interest in biosecurity in addition to vaccination is recommended, providing a more sustainable pathway for poverty reduction through the current expansion of livestock investments in the GMS.     

Risk of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease for the Pacific NorthWest Economic Region

The paper discusses the risk for an outbreak of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) in the Pacific NortWest Economic Region (PNWER). Topics examined throughout the paper include: why PNWER is vulnerable to FMD, risks to Canada and the U.S. for the introduction of FMD, response strategies, and preventative measures. These topics will identify a number of challenges that region will face if an outbreak were to occur including illegal trade, movement of people, livestock movements, vaccination, and zoning. There is also a discussion in these topics around potential strategies that could be used on both sides of the border to minimize the impact of an outbreak both from an animal welfare perspective and from a trade and economic perspective.     

Proper Quality Control of Formulated Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Vaccines in Countries with Prophylactic Vaccination is Necessary

Vaccination is considered as an important tool to control foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD). A good quality vaccine containing relevant serotypes and matching strains is a pre‐requisite for vaccination to be effective. The present study investigated the quality of different brands of FMD vaccine available in Pakistan, including three locally produced and two imported products. All the vaccines were found free of bacterial or fungal contamination. No adverse effects were noted in suckling mice and buffalo calves inoculated with the vaccines, showing that the vaccines were sterile and safe. The humoral immune response to the FMD vaccines was determined in buffalo calves for 234 days post‐vaccination. Very low humoral immune responses against FMD serotypes O, A and Asia 1 viruses were detected to the locally produced vaccines. The imported vaccines, however, elicited a higher antibody response which persisted for a long period in one of the 2 vaccines. The present study highlights the need of assessing an independent vaccine quality control of finished FMD vaccine products.     

Investigation of Foot and Mouth Disease hotspots in northern Lao PDR

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an endemic transboundary disease in the Mekong region, and FMD records of reports to animal health authorities in Lao PDR between 2009 and 2011 were reviewed. FMD outbreaks occurred in 2 of 3 years in eight districts in three of the eight northern Lao PDR provinces, locations suggested as FMD ‘hotspots’. The relatively higher risk of recurrence of FMD in these districts was likely due to the presence of a dense large ruminant population, extensive animal trading including transboundary movements and ineffective animal movement controls. As an understanding of the epidemiology of FMD in these ‘hotspots’ may offer insights into improved FMD control in the region, a study of an outbreak of FMD occurring in early 2010 following failure to vaccinate was conducted in the endemic ‘hotspot’ area of Paek district in Xiengkhoung province where in early 2009, a major outbreak of FMD in the district had been prevented in two villages by vaccination. The 2010 outbreak included collection of tissue samples 1 week after the onset of FMD that confirmed infection with FMD virus serotype O (Myanmar topotype) in a population of 239 large ruminants, comprising 167 cattle and 72 buffalo. A survey by interview of 30 farmers conducted in July 2010 documented high morbidity in cattle and buffalo (>90%) and identified disease risk factors, including increased trading of animals at the end of the rice harvest, plus several failures of biosecurity. In late 2010 and early 2011, a total of 40 and 72 serum samples were collected from large ruminants prior to and post‐FMD vaccination respectively and tested by LPB‐ELISA. Antibodies were present in the pre‐vaccination samples attributable to previous exposure to FMD virus and significantly rising post‐vaccination titres indicated likely temporary protection against future FMDV infection. It was concluded that to provide sufficient control of FMD in this ‘hotspot’, regular vaccination, particularly prior to the peak risk period in December‐February, plus improved farmer knowledge of disease transmission risk and biosecurity, is required. Although low rural education standards and language barriers because of multiple ethnic groups pose a challenge for the successful delivery of extension programmes in northern Lao PDR, training to improve disease recognition and reporting plus village‐level biosecurity practices is considered important in FMD ‘hotspots’ if sustainable regional initiatives directed at FMD control are to be achieved.     

Heterogeneity in the Antibody Response to Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Primo‐vaccinated Calves

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) vaccines are routinely used as effective control tools in large regions worldwide and to limit outbreaks during epidemics. Vaccine‐induced protection in cattle has been largely correlated with the FMD virus (FMDV)‐specific antibodies. Genetic control of cattle immune adaptive responses has been demonstrated only for peptide antigens derived from FMDV structural proteins. Here, we quantify the heterogeneity in the antibody response of cattle primo‐vaccinated against FMD and study its association with the genetic background in Holstein and Jersey sires. A total of 377 FMDV‐seronegative calves (122 and 255 calves from 16 and 15 Holstein and Jersey sires, respectively) were included in the study. Samples were taken the day prior to primo‐vaccination and 45 days post‐vaccination (dpv). Animals received commercial tetravalent FMD single emulsion oil vaccines formulated with inactivated FMDV. Total FMDV‐specific antibody responses were studied against three viral strains included in the vaccine, and antibody titres were determined by liquid‐phase blocking ELISA. Three linear hierarchical mixed regression models, one for each strain, were formulated to assess the heterogeneity in the immune responses to vaccination. The dependent variables were the antibody titres induced against each FMDV strain at 45 dpv, whereas sire's ‘breed’ was included as a fixed effect, ‘sire’ was included as a random effect, and ‘farm’ was considered as a hierarchical factor to account for lack of independence of within herd measurements. A significant association was found between anti‐FMDV antibody responses and sire's breed, with lower immune responses found in the Jersey sires’ offspring compared with those from Holstein sires. No significant intrabreed variation was detected. In addition, farm management practices were similar in this study, and results of the serological assays were shown to be repeatable. It therefore seems plausible that differences in the immune response may be expected in the event of a mass vaccination campaigns.     

The Pathogenesis of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease I: Viral Pathways in Cattle

In 1898, foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) earned a place in history as the first disease of animals shown to be caused by a virus. Yet, despite over a century of active investigation and elucidation of many aspects of FMD pathogenesis, critical knowledge about the virus–host interactions is still lacking. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of FMD pathogenesis in cattle spanning from the earliest studies to recently acquired insights emphasizing works which describe animals infected by methodologies most closely resembling natural infection (predominantly aerosol or direct/indirect contact). The three basic phases of FMD pathogenesis in vivo will be dissected and characterized as: (i) pre‐viraemia characterized by infection and replication at the primary replication site(s), (ii) sustained viraemia with generalization and vesiculation at secondary infection sites and (iii) post‐viraemia/convalescence including resolution of clinical disease that may result in long‐term persistent infection. Critical evaluation of the current status of understanding will be used to identify knowledge gaps to guide future research efforts.     

Investigations into the Cause of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Virus Seropositive Small Ruminants in Cyprus During 2007

In 2007, serological evidence for foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) infection was found as a result of differential diagnostic testing of Cypriot sheep suspected to be infected with bluetongue or contagious ecthyma. Seropositive sheep and goats were subsequently uncovered on ten geographically clustered flocks, while cattle and pigs in neighbouring herds were all seronegative. These antibodies were specific for serotype‐O FMD virus, reacting with both structural and non‐structural (NS) FMD viral proteins. However, no FMD virus could be recovered from the seropositive flocks. FMD had not been recorded in Cyprus since 1964 and there has been no vaccination programme since 1984. Since all the seropositive animals were at least 3 years old and home‐bred, it was concluded that infection had occurred approximately 3 years previously had passed un‐noticed and died out spontaneously. It therefore appears that antibodies to FMD virus NS proteins can still be detected around 3 years after infection of small ruminants, but that virus carriers cannot be detected at this time. This unusual situation of finding evidence of historical infection in a FMD‐free country caused considerable disruption and alarm and posed questions about the definition of what constitutes a FMD outbreak.     

Review: Evaluation of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Control Using Fault Tree Analysis

An outbreak of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) causes huge economic losses and animal welfare problems. Although much can be learnt from past FMD outbreaks, several countries are not satisfied with their degree of contingency planning and aiming at more assurance that their control measures will be effective. The purpose of the present article was to develop a generic fault tree framework for the control of an FMD outbreak as a basis for systematic improvement and refinement of control activities and general preparedness. Fault trees are typically used in engineering to document pathways that can lead to an undesired event, that is, ineffective FMD control. The fault tree method allows risk managers to identify immature parts of the control system and to analyse the events or steps that will most probably delay rapid and effective disease control during a real outbreak. The present developed fault tree is generic and can be tailored to fit the specific needs of countries. For instance, the specific fault tree for the 2001 FMD outbreak in the UK was refined based on control weaknesses discussed in peer‐reviewed articles. Furthermore, the specific fault tree based on the 2001 outbreak was applied to the subsequent FMD outbreak in 2007 to assess the refinement of control measures following the earlier, major outbreak. The FMD fault tree can assist risk managers to develop more refined and adequate control activities against FMD outbreaks and to find optimum strategies for rapid control. Further application using the current tree will be one of the basic measures for FMD control worldwide.     

Serotype Specificity of Antibodies against Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Virus in Cattle in Selected Districts in Uganda

Uganda had an unusually large number of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in 2006, and all clinical reports were in cattle. A serological investigation was carried out to confirm circulating antibodies against foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV) by ELISA for antibodies against non‐structural proteins and structural proteins. Three hundred and forty‐nine cattle sera were collected from seven districts in Uganda, and 65% of these were found positive for antibodies against the non‐structural proteins of FMDV. A subset of these samples were analysed for serotype specificity of the identified antibodies. High prevalences of antibodies against non‐structural proteins and structural proteins of FMDV serotype O were demonstrated in herds with typical visible clinical signs of FMD, while prevalences were low in herds without clinical signs of FMD. Antibody titres were higher against serotype O than against serotypes SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3 in the sera investigated for serotype‐specific antibodies. Only FMDV serotype O virus was isolated from one probang sample. This study shows that the majority of the FMD outbreaks in 2006 in the region studied were caused by FMDV serotype O; however, there was also evidence of antibodies to both SAT 1 and SAT 3 in one outbreak in a herd inside Queen Elizabeth national park area.     

Molecular Characterization of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Virus: Implications for Disease Control in Bangladesh

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Bangladesh, and to implement an effective FMD control programme, it is essential to understand the complex epidemiology of the disease. Here, we report on the characterization of FMD virus (FMDV) recovered from FMD outbreaks in Bangladesh in late 2009. All isolated viruses belonged to the FMDV serotype O. The phylogenetic reconstruction showed that all isolates belonged to the Middle East–South Asia (ME–SA) topotype, but fell into two distinct sublineages, one named Ind‐2001 (the other has not been named). Within both sublineages, the 2009 Bangladesh isolates were most closely related to viruses from Nepal collected during 2008 and 2009. Additionally, both sublineages contained older viruses from India collected in 2000 and 2001. In South Asia, there is extensive cross‐border cattle movement from Nepal and India to Bangladesh. Both these findings have implications for the control of FMD in Bangladesh. Because of the porous borders, a regional FMD control strategy should be developed. Further, animal identification and monitoring animal movements are necessary to identify the cross‐border movements and market chain interactions of ruminants, leading to improved border and movement controls. Additionally, a vaccination strategy should be developed with the initial objective of protecting small‐scale dairy herds from disease. For any successful FMD control programme, long‐term Government commitment and adequate resources are necessary. A sustainable programme will also need farmer education, commitment and financial contributions.     

Epidemiological Study on Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Cattle: Seroprevalence and Risk Factor Assessment in South Omo Zone,South‐western Ethiopia

A cross‐sectional sero‐epidemiological study was conducted in seven districts of the South Omo zone, south‐western Ethiopia, between October 2008 and May 2009 with the objective of determining the seroprevalence of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) in cattle and identifying the potential risk factors associated with the disease. In total, 770 cattle sera samples were collected and submitted to the National Veterinary Institute (NVI), Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, for screening using the 3ABC‐ELISA. The overall seroprevalence of 8.18% (n = 63) was recorded in the study. The highest district‐level prevalence was observed in Bennatsemay district (30.2%), and the lowest prevalence was in Malle and Debub Aari districts, each with prevalence of 6.3%. The difference in seropositivity of FMD in the studied districts was found to be statistically significant. From the various risk factors analysed, age of animal, contact history with wild animals, distance of the herd from parks and wild animals’ sanctuary and movement pattern of herds in search of pasture and water from area to area were found to be significantly associated (P < 0.05) with the seroprevalence of FMD. The results of this study showed that FMD is an important cattle disease in the study areas. Thus, an appropriate control strategy has to be designed and applied, which could involve regulation of transboundary cattle movement, prevention of contact with wildlife and vaccination against the circulating virus strain.     

Evaluation of the Control Strategy for the 2010 Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Outbreak in Japan Using Disease Simulation

In 2010, Japan experienced a foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) epidemic where 292 premises were infected over a period of 75 days. The epidemic was controlled by stamping‐out and vaccination, applied 5 weeks after the first confirmation of disease within a 10 km radius of identified infected places. This study aimed at identifying the role of emergency vaccination to epidemic control while adjusting for the dynamic pattern of local spread, and assessing alternative vaccination strategies, using a disease simulation model. Our results indicate that the overall hazard of local spread remained high throughout the silent spread phase and the first two weeks post‐detection, with significant reduction occurring from week 3 onwards. The estimated effectiveness of emergency vaccination quantified as reduction in the hazard of infection was at most 81% and 44% for cattle and pig farms, respectively. The vaccination strategy reduced the simulated median number of IPs by 22%, epidemic duration by 64% and culling duration by 52%, but increased the total number of infected or vaccinated premises subject to culling by 144% compared with no vaccination. The simulation indicated that vaccination starting 2 weeks earlier (3 weeks post‐first detection) with a smaller vaccination radius (3 km) was more effective for eradication of the epidemic compared with the actually implemented strategy.