Current concepts in the relative efficacy of percutaneous nephrostolithotomy and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy

Summary Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) and percutaneous nephrostolithotomy (PCNL) have largely replaced open surgical operations for the management of upper urinary tract calculi. ESWL is generally preferred for calculi less than or equal to 2 cm as morbidity is lower than PCNL and success rates comparable. However, the morbidity of ESWL rises substantially for stones greater than 2 cm, while the stone-free rate is lessened compared to PCNL (41% vs. 82%, p<0.01), suggesting that PCNL is preferred for most larger stones. Results for staghorn calculi comparable to anatrophic nephrolithotomy with lowered morbidity may be achieved with PCNL followed by ESWL. PCNL is also preferred for stone-containing, calyceal diverticula.     

微创经皮肾取石术治疗孤立肾铸型结石的疗效观察

目的：探讨微创经皮肾取石术（MPCNL）治疗孤立肾铸型结石的安全性及有效性。方法：回顾性分析2007年4月-2008年12月应用MPCNL治疗34例孤立肾铸型结石患者的临床资料：34例患者结石平均表面积（2314±179）mm^2,肾积脓5例。4例先行穿刺造瘘术,5～7天后行二期经皮肾镜取石术,其余患者均行一期取石术。其中单通道取石18例,双通道取石15例,三通道取石1例。结果：3例一期取石时残余小结石,结合ESWL清除小残石,结石总清除率为91．2％（31／34）。1例出现感染性休克,1例术后大出血行介入栓塞治疗,无死亡患者。术后随访4～18个月,19例肾功能不全患者中,11例肾功能恢复正常,6例肾功能有不同程度改善,2例发展为尿毒症期行血液透析,其中1例为术后大出血行介入栓塞的患者。结论：微创多通道MPCNL治疗孤立肾铸型结石安全可行,效果确切,具有创伤小、恢复快、可反复操作等优点,可作为孤立肾铸型结石的首选治疗方法。     

经皮肾镜超声弹道碎石术治疗复杂性肾结石

目的：探讨经皮肾镜超声弹道碎石术治疗复杂性肾结石的疗效。方法：采用经皮肾镜联合EMS Ⅲ代超声弹道碎石清石系统治疗48例复杂性肾结石患者,完全性鹿角状结石12例,部分鹿角状结石30例,多发性结石6例。结石直径2．0～6．5cm,平均2．8cm。结果：48例患者中,43例Ⅰ期取净结石;5例完全性鹿角状结石者术后2个月仍有结石残留,结石直径均小于1．0cm,辅助施行ESWL后排净。结石粉碎率100％,结石清除率89．6％（43／48）。手术时间50～120min,平均70min,平均出血量50ml。无严重并发症发生。术后随访3～6个月,肾功能均有不同程度改善。结论：经皮肾镜下使用EMSⅢ代碎石清石系统治疗复杂性肾结石,具有高效、可靠、安全、损伤小、出血少及恢复快等优点,可以作为目前治疗复杂性肾结石的首选方法。     

无管化标准通道经皮肾镜取石术治疗上尿路结石67例

目的探讨无管化标准通道经皮肾镜取石术在治疗上尿路结石方面的疗效及安全性。方法回顾性分析2008年1月至2013年7月采用无管化标准通道经皮肾镜取石术治疗67例上尿路结石患者的临床资料。其中单发肾结石24例,多发肾结石13例,不完全性鹿角形结石8例,连接部及输尿管上段结石22例,结石最大直径0．9～3．0cm。我们对于非复杂型上尿路结石,肾皮质厚度≥1cm、无严重尿路感染、无活动性出血、无集合系统穿透性损伤及满意的清石病例,术后仅留置双J管而不放置肾造瘘管。结果所有患者均一期手术成功。平均手术时间36．7±2．3min;术后第l天疼痛评分为2．9±1．5mm,术后平均住院时间（4．1±0．8）d;术前、后平均血红蛋白下降值为（1．0±0．5）μ/L;结石清除率100％。无输血病例及选择性肾动脉栓塞病例;无感染性休克和肾周积液发生。结论在经过严格筛选病例基础上,无管化标准通道经皮肾镜取石术治疗上尿路结石是安全可行的。     

微创经皮肾穿刺取石治疗小儿上尿路结石

目的探讨微创经皮肾穿刺取石术（minimally invasive percutaneous nephrolithotomy,MPCNL）治疗小儿上尿路结石的效果。方法回顾分析35例MPCNL治疗小儿上尿路结石的临床资料,男29例,女6例,平均年龄8.5岁（4～13岁）。输尿管上段结石7例,肾结石28例,均为一侧上尿路结石。伴肾盂输尿管连接部（ureteropelvic junction obstruction,UPJ）梗阻2例。结果MPCNL治疗成功31例,成功率88.6%（31/35）,其中一期结石完全清除率87.1%（27/31）,二期结石完全清除率75%（3/4）。2例结石位于UPJ致结石下方狭窄,2例皮肾穿刺失败,改开放手术。结论MPCNL是治疗小儿肾结石和输尿管上段结石安全、有效的方法。     

Comparison of results and morbidity of percutaneous nephrostolithotomy and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy

Two new therapies, percutaneous nephrostolithotomy and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, are revolutionizing the treatment of upper urinary tract calculi. We report the success and morbidity rates in 110 patients undergoing percutaneous nephrostolithotomy and 982 patients treated with extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy. Staghorn calculi were excluded from this series. The over-all success rate (free of stones plus small asymptomatic residual fragments) was comparable with both modalities (percutaneous nephrostolithotomy 98 per cent and extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy 95 per cent), although the presence of residual fragments was more common in kidneys treated with extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (24 versus 7 per cent). Patient morbidity as measured by temperature elevation, length of postoperative stay, pain and blood loss was significantly less (p less than 0.05) with extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy than with percutaneous nephrostolithotomy. Re-treatment rates were similar with both procedures, and tended to increase in relation to increasing stone size and stone number. Post-treatment ancillary procedures (cystoscopy and stone manipulation, and percutaneous nephrostomy) were used more frequently with extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy. Because of its efficacy and low morbidity, we conclude that extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy is the treatment of choice for upper urinary tract calculi less than 2 cm. in diameter. However, percutaneous nephrostolithotomy will continue to have a primary role in the management of larger stones and cystine stones, and it will be used as a secondary procedure after unsuccessful extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy treatments. In addition, because of the complimentary nature of these 2 new technologies certain complex stones, such as staghorn calculi, may be handled best by a combination of the 2 techniques.     

腔内弹道碎石加ESWL联合治疗复杂上尿路结石的临床观察

目的：探讨输尿管镜下气压弹道碎石,体外冲击波碎石（ESWL）及经皮肾穿刺取石联合治疗复杂性上尿路结石的疗效。方法：自1998年8月－2000年12月分别采用输尿管镜下气压弹道碎石,ESWL及经皮肾穿刺取石联合治疗复杂性上尿路结石133例。结果：结石总排净率为90．2％（120／133）,其中肾铸形结石排净率为87．9％（29／33）,输尿管结石排净率为91．0％（91／100）,并发症主要为输尿管穿孔及顽固血尿,占3．7％,结论：采用此联合方法治疗复杂性上尿路结石的排净率高,损伤小,可有效地避免开放手术之痛苦。     

微创经皮肾取石术治疗幼儿上尿路结石的临床分析

目的探讨微创经皮肾取石术（MPCNL）治疗幼儿上尿路结石的安全性及临床疗效。方法2008年9月至2008年10月,采用MPCNL技术治疗幼儿上尿路结石7例,合并轻度积水1例,中度肾积水2例,重度肾积水4例。其中1例双侧结石。结果8侧肾脏均为16F单通道取石,术后仅1侧肾小盏残留小结石,其余结石完全清除。无严重并发症。结论MPCNL治疗幼儿上尿路结石合并肾积水安全、有效,同时具有创伤小、恢复快等优点。     

PERCUTANEOUS NEPHROLITHOTOMY IN THE PEDIATRIC POPULATION

PURPOSE: Percutaneous nephrolithotomy is an established technique used in children with renal calculi. We review our experience with percutaneous nephrolithotomy for treating nephrolithiasis in childhood. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the records of children who underwent percutaneous nephrolithotomy procedures for renal calculi from 1985 to 1996. Antegrade percutaneous access was obtained in all patients and the tract was dilated to 24F. Grasper forceps, ultrasound and/or electrohydraulic lithotripsy was used to remove and disintegrate stones. In all patients a nephrostomy tube was placed intraoperatively, and a plain abdominal x-ray and nephrostogram were done postoperatively. The nephrostomy tube was removed after ensuring free drainage down the ureter and no untoward effects from clamping. Complete anatomical and metabolic evaluation was performed in all cases. Patients were followed 2 to 6 weeks, and 3 and 6 months postoperatively with a plain abdominal x-ray and excretory urography or renal ultrasound. RESULTS: In 5 boys and 3 girls (9 renal units) 4 to 11 years old (mean age 6.4) a total of 10 percutaneous nephrolithotomy procedures were performed. At presentation 6 children had flank and/or abdominal pain, 5 gross hematuria and 3 urinary tract infection. Three patients had associated metabolic abnormalities. One patient with a staghorn calculus had hydronephrosis and multiple infundibular stenoses. No underlying urological anatomical abnormalities were noted in the remaining cases. Four renal units that were obstructed at presentation required initial nephrostomy tube insertion. Average operative time was 131.8 minutes (range 58 to 240). An 87.5% stone-free rate was achieved using percutaneous nephrolithotomy monotherapy. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy was not successful for eradicating a staghorn stone in 1 patient. Hypothermia developed in 2 patients in whom operative time exceeded 150 minutes. No blood transfusions were required. CONCLUSIONS: Percutaneous nephrolithotomy is safe and effective in children, and should be considered a viable management option. However, staghorn calculi may require alternative management, particularly in the setting of underlying anatomical abnormalities. Children with renal calculi should undergo a complete anatomical and metabolic assessment with the institution of medical therapy, as appropriate.     

微创经皮肾镜碎石取石术治疗鹿角形肾结石52例分析

目的:探讨微创经皮肾镜碎石取石术(mPCNL)治疗鹿角形肾结石的疗效和安全性。方法:应用PCNL治疗52例鹿角形肾结石,采用实时彩色多普勒超声引导穿刺、扩张建立F16微通道,钬激光粉碎结石。统计结石清除率以及手术并发症等。结果:52例均一期建立通道。一次治疗结石清除率71.2%,总清除率84.7%,术后2例出现发热,未发生脏器损伤和感染性休克病例。结论:mPCNL治疗鹿角形肾结石效率高、出血量少,是治疗鹿角形肾结石的安全、有效方法。     

Minimal-invasive PCNL (Mini-Perc)

Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (SWL) is the current treatment modality of choice for upper urinary tract calculi. For stones with a diameter >2 cm and in lower calyceal stones and diverticular stones, the stone-free rate of SWL is rather poor. In these cases, conventional percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) leads to an increased stone-free rate, but morbidity with conventional PCNL is significant higher than in SWL. With the invention of miniaturized nephroscopes (mini-perc), new treatment options are available. The experience based on hundreds of treatments using mini-perc show comparable results of mini-perc to conventional PCNL and a complication rate comparable to that for SWL. These favorable results are independent of stone size, stone location, and patient age. In summary, mini-perc can be recommended as a primary approach to stones of the upper urinary tract exceeding 1 cm, larger lower-pole stones, and calyceal diverticular stones. Mini-perc can be regarded as an alternative treatment modality to conventional PCNL.     

经皮肾镜取石术治疗鹿角形肾结石通道建立技巧的探讨

目的：探讨经皮肾镜取石术（PCNL）治疗鹿角形肾结石术中穿刺点、穿刺径路的合理选择及扩张、通道建立的技巧。方法：总结在X线定位下PCNL治疗36例鹿角形肾结石患者的经皮肾通道建立与治疗效果。结果：Ⅰ期手术穿刺、通道建立、成功碎石率100％;Ⅰ～Ⅲ期结石完全清除率83．33％;单通道26例（72．22％）,双通道7例（19．44％）,三通道3例（8．33％）;无大出血、感染休克等严重并发症发生。结论：PCNL治疗鹿角形肾结石的第一个穿刺点首选中后组盏,径路应与目标盏长径相吻合;带鞘扩张时扩张器应进入集合系统内约2cm,退出扩张器直接完成通道建立;Ⅰ期建立单通道处理。肾盂、中组肾盏结石为主,Ⅱ期先经Ⅰ期通道处理上下盏残留结石,慎重建立第二、三条经皮肾通道。     

经皮F16与F24肾造瘘通道治疗上尿路结石（附156例报告）

目的 探讨与评价F16、F24两种经皮肾造瘘通道治疗上尿路结石的方法与疗效。方法分别采用F16与F24两种经皮通道治疗上尿路结石156例。结果采用Ⅰ期、Ⅱ期，F16与F24两种经皮肾造瘘通道、输尿管镜及F20．8的经皮肾镜，用气压弹道及三代超声气压弹道碎石设备，成功处理156例上尿路结石，其中包括鹿角状结石、多发性肾结石、体外冲击波碎石（extracor-poreal shock wave lithotripsy，ESWL）治疗失败、孤立肾、马蹄肾结石、开放取石术后复发及输尿管上段结石，肾结石清除率89．8％，输尿管结石清除率99％。结论合理选择F16及F24两种经皮肾通道治疗上尿路结石，具有微创、恢复快、并发症少、安全性高的特点，可有效避免出血、感染等严重并发症，并可提高手术效率，两者结合效果更佳。     

肾镜联合输尿管软镜通过经皮肾单通道取石治疗肾鹿角形结石

目的探讨肾镜联合输尿管软镜通过20 F经皮肾单通道碎石取石一期治疗肾鹿角形结石的效果。 方法回顾性分析2014年1月至2016年8月我院37例采用肾镜联合输尿管软镜通过经皮肾单通道治疗的鹿角形肾结石患者的临床资料,男14例,女23例。年龄34～62岁,平均（46±13）岁,其中左侧25例、右侧12例。结石直径3.3 cm～6.0 cm,平均（4.9±0.1）cm。采用超声引导穿刺下经皮肾穿刺单通道取石,扩张通道至20 F,应用超声或钬激光碎石。 结果37例患者均一期建立20 F皮肾单通道,36例一期行肾镜联合输尿管软镜通过经皮肾单通道碎石取石,经下盏建立皮肾通道34例（91.9%）,一期结石清除率86.5%（32/37）,一期手术时间58～125 min,平均（92±23）min。术后当日测血红蛋白下降3.2～9.5 g/L,平均（5.7±1.8）g/L。术后住院时间5～9 d,平均（7±1）d。3例患者术后体温≥38.5℃。37例患者均无大出血及输血,无尿脓毒症,无肾脏穿孔及胸腹腔积液等并发症。 结论肾镜联合输尿管软镜通过20 F经皮肾单通道碎石取石一期治疗肾鹿角形结石,结石清除率高、创伤小、并发症少。     

三种经皮肾穿刺取石术治疗上尿路结石对照分析

目的：比较李氏肾镜与标准经皮肾镜及微创经皮肾输尿管镜治疗上尿路结石的有效性与安全性,提高上尿路结石的治疗水平.方法：2005年1月～2009年1月,三种经皮肾穿刺取石术治疗上尿路结石132例,其中包括肾结石87例（包括肾脏单发及多发结石56例,鹿角型结石31例）,输尿管上段结石45例.标准经皮肾镜取石术34例,年龄34～78岁,平均57岁;结石大小2.3～5.8 cm,平均3.5 cm;鹿角型结石14例.微创经皮肾输尿管镜取石术52例,年龄31～77岁,平均51岁;结石大小2.1～5.0 cm,平均3.3 cm;鹿角型结石8例.经皮李氏肾镜取石术46例,年龄29～81岁,平均55岁;结石大小2.0～5.5 cm,平均3.0 cm;鹿角型结石9例.对三组患者手术时间、留置造瘘管时间、I期结石清除率及手术出血进行比较.结果：李氏肾镜治疗输尿管上端结石（L4）手术时间（56±5）min,治疗上尿路结石I期手术清除率为80.43%,出血量为（156±38）ml,输血率2.17%,与标准经皮肾镜及微创经皮肾输尿管镜比较,差异均有统计学意义（P＜0.05）.对李氏肾镜治疗6例肾盂单发结石患者实行＂无管化＂,均恢复较好,无一例发生出血、漏尿及感染.结论：李氏肾镜在微造瘘经皮肾手术中较标准肾镜和输尿管镜代肾镜具有操作更简化、手术效率更高、剩余结石更少、并发症减少等优点.     

微创经皮肾穿刺取石术治疗上尿路结石

目的：探讨微创经皮肾穿刺取石术(PCNL)治疗上尿路结石的安全性及有效性。方法：对接受微创经皮肾取石术治疗的858例上尿路结石患者进行了回顾性分析。其中单发肾盂、肾盏结石213例，输尿管上段结石111例，手术后残留结石129例，肾铸型或鹿角形结石391例；双侧肾结石14例。结果：所有患者均行一期穿刺取石，共行1015次手术。其中单通道穿刺取石672侧肾，二通道186侧肾，三通道13侧肾，四通道1侧肾，结石清除率90．18％，平均手术时间98min，肾造瘘管留置时间平均6d，平均住院14d，其中2例需要输血，仅1例术后10d并发大出血，经高选择性肾动脉栓塞止血治愈，其余未出现大的并发症。结论：微创经皮肾取石术治疗上尿路结石是有效的。它与开放手术及传统经皮肾取石术相比，能减少术中、术后出血及并发症，明显提高结石的清除率，具有对患者创伤小、恢复快、缩短住院时间等优点，并对残留结石和复发结石的再次手术治疗有较大优越性。     

Renal stone disease in spinal-cord-injured patients

Renal stone disease is common among patients with spinal cord injury (SCI). They frequently have recurrent stones, staghorn calculi, and bilateral stone disease. The potential risk factors for stones in the SCI population are lesion level, bladder management strategy, specific metabolic changes, and frequent urinary tract infections. There has been a reduction in struvite stones among these patients, likely as a result of advances in their urologic care. The clinical presentation of stone disease in patients with SCI may involve frequent urinary infections or urosepsis, and at the time of presentation patients may need emergency renal drainage. The proportion of patients who have their stones treated with different modalities is largely unknown. Shockwave lithotripsy (SWL) is commonly used to manage stones in patients with SCI, and there have been reports of stone-free rates of 50% to 70%. The literature suggests that the morbidity associated with percutaneous nephrolithotomy in these patients is considerable. Ureteroscopy is a common modality used in the general population to treat patients with upper tract stone disease. Traditional limitations of this procedure in patients with SCI have likely been overcome with new flexible scopes; however, the medical literature has not specifically reported on its use among patients with SCI.     

Multimodal treatment (extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy and endourology) of complicated renal stone disease

From October 1983, (installation of the extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy unit) to August 1985, 207 patients presented at the Katharinenhospital Stuttgart with complicated renal stone disease (70 borderline stones, 77 partial and 60 complete staghorn calculi). 197 patients were treated with the new technology for urinary stone therapy, i.e. extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCN), and ureterorenoscopy. The combination of PCN and ESWL proved to be the optimal therapeutic approach in the majority of cases (44%), particularly for partial and complete staghorns, whereas PCN or ESWL monotherapy are indicated for borderline stones (51% ESWL, 26% PCN, 20% combination, 3% surgery) and selected cases of staghorn calculi only. Based on this treatment policy (minimal invasiveness and morbidity), 75 patients with partial staghorn (21% ESWL, 28 PCN, 44% combination, 7% surgery) and 52 cases of complete staghorn stone (2% ESWL, 13% PCN, 74% combination, 11% surgery) have been treated successfully. The rate of major complications was low (2.5% septicemia, 2% major renal hemorrhage, 0.5% mortality). With this new concept of multimodal therapy (ESWL and endourology), even cases of malignant stone formation ('stone cancer') may be treatable, since these methods can be applied repeatedly without damaging the renal parenchyma.     

超声引导多通道经皮肾镜取石术治疗复杂性肾结石

目的 评估超声引导多通道微创经皮肾镜取石术(PCNL)治疗复杂性肾结石的方法及效果.方法 对46 例接受超声引导微创多通道PCNL 的患者进行回顾性分析.其中鹿角型肾结石8 例,多发性肾结石38 例.部分残留结石行二期或三期手术取石.结果 双通道取石40 例,三通道6 例;一期取净率76.1%,总结石取尽率为95.6%;一期手术平均手术时间1.8 h.手术平均出血量240 ml.结论 超声引导多通道PCNL 治疗复杂性肾结石安全、有效.     

输尿管软镜治疗孤立肾上尿路结石34例临床观察

目的探讨输尿管软镜治疗孤立肾上尿路结石的疗效及手术技巧。方法 2012年1月至2013年12月对34例孤立肾上尿路结石患者行输尿管软镜碎石术,其中先天性孤立肾2例,对侧肾切除所致孤立肾8例,对侧肾萎缩(无功能肾)24例;萎缩肾有17例既往行开放手术,4例曾有多次体外冲击波碎石史。34例患者中有21例为孤立肾经皮肾镜术后残留结石,23例患者术前留置D-J管1~4周,11例患者术前无D-J管留置。结果手术时间40~125min,30例均一次碎石成功,单次手术碎石总成功率为88.2%(30/34),其中17例患者术后1月复查腹部平片(KUB)未见明显残留结石,13例患者残留结石4mm;3月后再次复查,结石均完全排出;2例患者因术中角度原因未能完全碎石,术后结合ESWL,但仍有残留结石4mm,1例患者行二次输尿管软镜碎石,间隔时间1月,术后1月复查无明显结石残留;1例孤立肾铸性结石先后行3次软镜,每间隔时间1月,术后复查结石完全排出。结论输尿管软镜治疗孤立肾上尿路结石是安全有效的,特别适用于孤立肾经皮肾镜术后残留结石,其结石排净率高、并发症低,可以作为孤立肾上尿路结石,特别是孤立肾经皮肾镜术后残留结石的首选。