Haematoma and abscess after neuraxial anaesthesia: a review of 647 cases

Although rare, spinal haematoma and abscess after central neuraxial blocks may cause severe permanent neurological injury. Optimal treatment and outcome remain unclear. In order to identify possible predisposing patient characteristics and describe the ensuing clinical course, we searched Medline, Embase, and the Cochrane Library for reports of spinal haematomas and abscesses associated with central neuraxial blocks. Extracted data included patient characteristics, symptoms, treatment, and outcome. We analysed 409 reports, including 647 patients (387 patients with spinal haematoma and 260 patients with spinal abscess). Spinal haematoma and abscess occurred predominantly after epidural anaesthesia (58% and 83%, respectively). Neurological recovery was correlated with the severity of initial neurological deficit. When decompression of spinal haematoma was delayed for >12 h after clinical diagnosis, neurological outcome was worse compared with earlier decompression (odds ratio 4.5, 95% confidence interval 2.1–9.9, P<0.001, n=163). After spinal haematoma, 47% of published patients had full recovery, 28% had partial recovery, and in 25% no recovery was observed. Good outcome after conservative management was observed in patients with mild symptoms or with spontaneous recovery during the diagnostic and therapeutic workup. After spinal abscess, 68% of reported patients recovered fully, 21% showed partial recovery, and no recovery was reported in 11%. Persistent neurological symptoms after spinal haematoma and abscess are common and correlate with the severity of initial neurological deficit. Neurological outcome seems worse when decompressive surgery of haematoma is delayed. Notwithstanding the considerable risk of selection bias and publication bias, conservative management may be feasible in patients with mild symptoms or spontaneous recovery.     

Spinal Subdural and Epidural Haematomas: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Aspects in Acute and Subacute Cases

Summary  Background. The diagnosis of spontaneous spinal haematomas mainly depends on magnetic resonance imaging. This study evaluates the MRI characteristics of spinal epidural and subdural haematomas. The results were correlated with medical history, coagulation abnormalities and therapeutic outcome to provide guidelines for early diagnosis and treatment of spinal epidural and subdural hematomas.  Summary of Background Data. Imaging signs of epidural and subdural haematomas have been reported before, however without special attention to the differential-diagnostic and therapeutic implications of haematoma localisation.  Method. Seven patients (3 women, 4 men, age range 55–86 years) with acute progressive neurological deficits and without a history of severe trauma were studied. In all cases neurological examinations were performed after admission followed by MRI studies with T2 and T1 weighted images, before and after administration of contrast agent. Spinal angiography was performed twice to exclude a vascular malformation. All patients underwent open surgery.  Findings. Acute and subacute hematomas were detected once in the cervical spine, in five cases in the thoracic region and once in the lumbar region. The hematomas had an epidural location in three cases and a subdural in four. In the thoracic region subdural haemorrhage was much more common than epidural hematomas. Subdural blood collections were mainly found ventral to the spinal cord. Epidural haemorrhage was always located dorsal to the spinal cord. The evaluation of the haematoma localisation may be difficult occasionally, but delineation of the dura is frequently possible in good quality MRI. The clue to the diagnosis of ventrally located subdural haemorrhage is the absence of the “curtain sign”, which is typical for epidural tumours.  Interpretation. Spontaneous spinal hematomas are frequently located in the thoracic spine. Subdural spinal haemorrhage is more frequent than epidural. Epidural haemorrhage is frequently located dorsal to the spinal cord because of the tight fixation of the dura to the vertebral bodies.     

Spontaneous Chronic and Subacute Subdural Haematoma in Young Adults

Summary  Spontaneous subacute and chronic haematoma in young adults is rare. It has not been previously reported in this age group.  We present three cases of chronic and subacute subdural haematoma in young adults, in one of whom the diagnosis was certainly delayed.  All three patients underwent burrhole evacuation and made a full neurological recovery. A cause for the haematoma was never established. The literature on the subject, which is scanty, is reviewed and the condition is briefly discussed. The aetiology remains obscure.     

The Prognostic Importance of the Volume of Traumatic Epidural and Subdural Haematomas Revisited

Summary  The size of a traumatic intracranial haematoma at the moment of diagnosis can be impressive. Haematoma thickness is an inaccurate estimator of haematoma volume, and association with patient outcome is controversial. In this study computerized volumetry of off-line digitized CT scans was used to relate haematoma volume with both patient characteristics on admission and at the six months outcome.  This retrospective study covered the time period 1981/1990. Ninety eight patients operated upon for an epidural haematoma and 91 patients operated upon for an acute subdural haematoma were analyzed. The relative importance of clinical data, CT scan parameters, and calculated haematoma volumes was determined by multivariate analysis.  Volume of the haematoma did not correlate with preoperative neurological condition or the six months outcome in either group, and consequently is not of additional prognostic value.     

Spontaneous spinal epidural haematomas

Summary The spontaneous spinal epidural haematoma (SSEH) is a rarity, but the severe and permanent motor disability underlines its importance.From 1957 seven cases of SSEH have been diagnosed and operated on in the National Institute of Neurosurgery, Budapest. These cases are analysed and discussed.The clinical picture began with local pain of the spine and radicular signs but some hours or days later paraparesis or paraplegia and incontinence developed. In the discussed cases the neurological deficit progressed to complete para- or tetraplegia in 5 cases. Only 2 patients had partial spinal transverse lesions on admission. All patients underwent myelography to detect the spinal space occupying lesion and were operated on soon. Three patients recovered completely, 2 remained partly and 2 totally paralysed.The outcome depended mainly on the timing of neurological deficiency. If the neurological signs existed less than 8 hours the patients recovered completely or fairly well while the prognosis was poor if the transverse lesion persisted longer than 24 hours.The authors stress the importance of correct and fast decisions at the first medical examination for the outcome of this disease, because only immediate transfer to a neurosurgical department gives a chance of good recovery.     

Coagulopathy Induced Spinal Intradural Extramedullary Haematoma: Report of Three Cases and Review of the Literature

Summary  In a retrospective review of 3 patients operated for coagulopathy induced spinal intradural-extramedullary haematoma the literature regarding coagulopathy induced spinal haemorrhage is reviewed and the etiology of these rare spinal subdural and subarachnoid haemorrhages is discussed.  Spinal intradural haematomas are usually related to trauma or a previous lumbar puncture. A review of the literature revealed only a handful cases of spinal intradural haemorrhages occurring secondary to an underlying haematological disorder or an iatrogenic coagulopathy.  Coagulopathy induced spinal haemorrhage should be included in the differential diagnosis of acute paraparesis in patients with co-existent haematological disorders or undergoing anticoagulation therapy. Due to the often mixed subdural and subarachnoid bleeding patterns we have termed this entity spinal intradural-extramedullary haematoma.     

Huge epidural hematoma after surgery for spinal cord stimulation

Summary Objective and importance. Spinal epidural haematoma (SEH) following implantation of an epidural spinal cord electrode is a very rare complication but one that must not be overlooked. This case is unusual because of the almost holocord extension of the haematoma and the excellent recovery obtained by prompt surgical treatment.Clinical presentation. A 69 years old man with normal serum coagulation parameters was submitted to spinal cord stimulation (SCS) for chronic pain syndrome. After a minimal L1 laminotomy the patient developed paraplegia due to a large haematoma at D4-L2.Intervention. Surgical removal of the entire clot by a D4-L2 laminectomy was performed immediately.Conclusion. Large epidural haematoma can result from SCS and this complication may be cured by appropriate and prompt surgery.     

Idiopathic symptomatic epidural lipomatosis of the lumbar spine

Summary.  Background: Symptomatic spinal epidural lipomatosis (SEL) of the lumbar spine is a rare disease, often associated with steroid overload. Idiopathic lipomatosis is even much less frequent. Signs and symptoms depend upon the level and degree of nerve root compression. Diagnosis is best based on MRI. Weight reduction can be curative, however after failure of medical treatment or in severe cases surgical decompression should be performed.  Method: Four patients with severe symptoms of lumbar spinal epidural lipomatosis were treated by surgical decompression. Patient history and neurological examination are described, diagnostic imaging is demonstrated, surgical treatment and outcome are documented. Different surgical techniques including laminectomy, interlaminar fenestration and lateral recess decompression were applied and are discussed.  Findings: All four patients improved after surgery. No surgical complications were observed. Even though limited to four cases this is the second largest series of operated idiopathic spinal epidural lipomatosis.  Interpretation: Surgical decompression was effective in improving symptoms in severe lumbar idiopathic spinal epidural lipomatosis. Published online April 28, 2003  Correspondence: M. Payer, M.D., Hiltbrunnerweg 10, 8713 Uerikon, Switzerland.     

Noncontiguous Spinal Metastases and Plasmocytomas Should be Operated on Through a Single Posterior Midline Approach, and Circumferential Decompression Should be Performed with Individualized Reconstruction

Summary  Background. In noncontiguous spinal metastatic disease, anterior or combined anterior-posterior surgery is an effective treatment. The objective of this study is to investigate whether circumferential decompression through a single-stage posterior midline approach with individualized spinal reconstruction can still achieve comparable results for functional improvement and for maintenance of spinal alignment in the absence of the risks associated with the more invasive transcavitary or combined approaches.  Method. Seventeen patients with noncontiguous spinal metastases and plasmocytomas at one or two adjacent levels were included in this series. Circumferential decompression was obtained with anterior reconstruction and posterior fixation in ten patients, and with posterior instrumentation alone in seven patients. Postoperatively the patients were prospectively followed, and their functional status and spinal alignment were periodically evaluated.  Findings. Fourteen patients died from progression of their underlying cancer. Their mean survival time was 8 months (range: 1 to 21 months). Three survivors were evaluated at 10, 4 and 3 months respectively. At one month after surgery, 14 patients (82%) showed neurological improvement. Of 10 preoperative nonambulators, seven regained walking capacity. Five patients who were ambulatory with assistance improved to full functional independence. Local tumour recurrence was recorded in one patient after subtotal vertebrectomy for a plasmocytoma at L5. No other tumour recurrences were noted. In one patient a partial loss of correction occurred at T6 – without functional deterioration, however. Spinal alignment was maintained in all other patients who became or remained ambulatory. No major intra-operative complications or peri-operative deaths occurred. CSF leakage was recorded as the most common complication in four patients.  Interpretation. Circumferential decompression and spinal reconstruction through a single-stage posterior midline approach is feasible and effective. The extent of surgery can be individualized by means of this technique to the patient's specific problem. In patients with limited life expectancy from metastatic neoplastic disease, the results compare favourably with the more invasive anterior or combined antero-posterior procedures.     

Is the Size of an Epidural Haematoma Related to Outcome?

Summary  Recently we treated 54 patients with acute epidural haematoma, diagnosed by early CT scan and operated on quickly, within 6 hours after trauma.  In 18 cases the volume of the haematoma, calculated by three different methods, was more than 150 cc, and GCS score was equal to or less than 8.  In all 18 patients, as well as in another 36, we obtained good results: all patients survived and 17 fully recovered (only one was left with moderate neurological disability).  Our experience leads us to the conclusion that even volumes of over 150 cc can be compatible not only with survival but also with very low morbidity, if rapid surgical treatment is performed.     

Diagnostic and Therapeutic Management of Spinal Arachnoid Cysts

Summary Background. The wide variety of intraspinal cystic lesions necessitates different elaborate diagnostic procedures to choose the right therapeutic management in symptomatic patients. Based on the case reports of seven patients with symptomatic spinal arachnoid cysts we discuss the aetiology, diagnostic procedures and therapeutic management of extra- and intradural spinal cysts.  Method. All patients underwent MRI, Myelography and CT-Myelography during diagnostic evaluation. During surgery the cyst was resected and the communication between the cyst and the subarachnoid space was closed.  Findings. Two patients were identified with intradural, five with extradural spinal arachnoid cysts. Postoperative outcome was favourable in those patients without preoperative cord damage.  Interpretation. MRI is the diagnostic procedure of first choice because of its potential to demonstrate the exact localisation, extent and relationship of the arachnoid cyst to the spinal cord. Cord atrophy secondary to compression can be visualised and used for prediction of neurological outcome. Myelography and CT-Myelography (CTM) are still of diagnostic value since they might demonstrate the communication between the subarachnoid space and the cyst, which is important for surgical planning. The aim of surgical treatment is neural decompression and prevention of refilling of the cyst which is best accomplished by complete resection of the cyst and closure of the communication between cyst and subarachnoid space.     

Local Coagulofibrinolysis in the Postsurgical Recovery of Patients with Chronic Subdural Haematoma

Summary  Postoperative recovery of patients with chronic subdural haematoma (CSH) was investigated by comparing pre- and postoperative coagulant and fibrinolytic activity in the haematoma contents of 15 patients with SCH. Patients in this study were treated draining the haematoma cavity without irrigation, a procedure dubbed the closed drainage. Haematomas were collected during, and 24 hrs after, surgery. Postoperative fibrinolytic activity was lower than that observed pre-operatively. In particular, levels of tissue plasminogen activator activity (TPA), and fibrin and fibrinogen degradation products (FDP) all decreased. In contrast, coagulant activity increased postoperatively.  This paper will discuss the role of local coagulofibrinolysis in the postoperative recovery of CSH patients.     

Nontraumatic spinal subdural haematoma occurring in a postpartum period

Summary.  Spontaneous occurrence of spinal subdural haematoma (SSH) is very rare. While many neurological disorders can develop in pregnant patients in relation to haemostatic imbalance, there have been no reports in the literature suggesting that pregnancy and/or childbirth per se could be a single risk factor for acute SSH.  A 38-year-old previously healthy woman gave birth to a baby via transvaginal normal delivery. The patient had no history of receiving anticoagulants. Eight days after delivery, she experienced sudden onset severe interscapular back pain, and the next day she developed dysesthesia in the both legs and mild urinary retention. Severe meningeal signs were noted. Lumbar puncture revealed bloody cerebrospinal fluid. Magnetic resonance images revealed SSH in the ventral position spreading from levels Th1 to Th7. The patient underwent conservative treatment after which the symptoms gradually improved. Serial MRI study at 17 and 69 days after onset showed spontaneous regression of the SSH. Spinal angiography did not show any vascular malformations, but simultaneous cerebral angiography revealed a co-existing cerebral aneurysm on the C2 segment of the left internal carotid artery. It is unlikely that the cerebral aneurysm was the origin of the SSH, based on the clinical and radiographic findings. Moreover, we confirmed the unruptured nature of the aneurysm during the clipping procedure at open surgery.  We report the unique case of subacute SSH occurring 8 days after childbirth without other known risk factors. The possible etiology and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings in this case, and the current controversy concerning therapy for SSH are discussed. Published online February 10, 2003  Correspondence: Kazumichi Yamada, M.D., Ph.D., Department of Neurosurgery, Kumamoto University Medical School, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan.     

Migration of Pacemaker Lead Into the Spinal Venous Plexus: Case Report with Special Reference to Batson's Theory of Spinal Metastasis

Summary  Objective and Importance. Migration of a foreign material via venous routes into the spinal canal is a very rare incidence. We report the second case in which a foreign body has migrated into the spinal canal via the venous route.  Clinical Presentation. This 35-years-old man presented with sudden onset of severe low back pain and pain in the right leg four months after an unsuccessful attempt to remove a disconnected cardiac pacemaker lead via the femoral vein. Direct lumbar x-ray demonstrated the broken lead of the cardiac pacemaker at the entrance of the right L5 foramen which was also demonstrated by lumbar CT.  Surgical Intervention. After right L5 hemilaminotomy, the pacemaker lead was found in a vein of the anterior spinal venous plexus just beneath and lateral to the right L5 root. After dissecting it from the surrounding adipose tissue, the embolised pacemaker lead was taken out.  Conclusion. We present a case report and review of the literature on migration of foreign material into the spinal canal, factors effecting the flow directions in the spinal veins. This case may be the first evidence that proved Batson's theory of spinal metastases in man.     

Spinal subdural haematoma as a complication of cranial surgery

Summary ?Background. Spinal subdural haematoma is a rare condition usually associated with several precipitating factors including coagulopathy, lumbar puncture, trauma, vascular malformation and previous spinal surgery. In this paper we report spinal subdural haematoma related to cranial surgery which is a previously unknown precipitating factor. Method. The medical records of six patients in whom spinal subdural haematoma developed after cranial surgery was reviewed retrospectively for clinical presentation, radiological findings, treatment, and outcome. Findings. Six patients presented with low back pain and radiculopathy in the lower extremity after surgery for intracranial lesions. Symptom onset was between 2 and 9 days after cranial surgery. Initial cranial procedures were craniotomy and tumour removal in 1 patient, clipping of aneurysm in 1, temporal lobectomy for epilepsy in 4. None of the patients had previously known precipitating factors for spinal subdural haematoma. In all of them, the diagnosis was confirmed by magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and the spinal segment involved was the lower lumbar and sacral level except for one patient with a wide distribution of haematoma over the thoracolumbar region. All patients recovered completely without surgical intervention. Interpretation. Spinal subdural haematoma is a rare but possible complication of cranial surgery. It should be considered in patients with back pain and radiculopathy in the lower extremity developing after surgery for intracranial lesions. Unlike spontaneous spinal subdural haematoma with other precipitating factors, spinal subdural haematoma developing after cranial surgery takes a benign clinical course and resolves spontaneously over several days to 2 weeks without surgical intervention. Published online May 19, 2003     

Spinal shock in spontaneous cervical spinal epidural haematoma

Summary. A young man presented with quadriparesis and spinal shock because of a spontaneous cervical spinal epidural haematoma was reported. Immediate MRI diagnosis followed by emergency decompression with six hours of presentation resulted in complete recovery.     

Are spontaneous epidural haematoma in sickle cell disease a rare complication? A report of two new cases

Summary Background. Sickle cell anaemia, an autosomal recessive disease relatively common among the black races, gives rise sometimes to neurological complications. Among these, spontaneous epidural haematoma constitutes a rare event that is not always easy to treat in the Third world conditions.Methods. Two new cases are described and their pathology is compared with the five already described cases in the literature. A vaso-occlusive pathological process as in the orbital compression syndrome is thought to be implicated in the generation of the spontaneous epidural haematoma.Results. When facing an epidural haematoma as a complication of sickle cell disease in a hospital of the Third world conditions, a cautious attitude towards surgery should be observed because of the high complication rate.If the relation between the haematoma and the anaemia is not immediately apparent, we are in favour of starting treatment with antibiotics.     

自发性椎管内硬膜外血肿的影像学及临床特征

目的分析自发性椎管内硬膜外血肿(SSEH)的影像学特征及临床治疗效果。方法回顾性分析2008年6月—2018年9月泰州市人民医院脊柱外科收治的SSEH患者临床资料,分析其影像学表现。采用硬膜外脊髓压迫(ESCC)分级评估硬膜外占位对硬膜囊及脊髓的压迫程度,美国脊髓损伤协会(ASIA)分级评估神经功能,疼痛视觉模拟量表(VAS)评分评估疼痛情况。结果本研究共纳入12例患者,年龄25 ～ 74岁,中位年龄64.5岁。MRI显示SSEH大多呈梭形、椭圆形,且多位于脊髓侧后方或后方的硬膜外腔。血肿最多发于颈段(4例)或颈胸段(4例)。血肿累及1 ～ 4个节段,平均2.6个节段。T1WI MRI上7例表现为等信号,4例表现为高信号,1例表现为低信号;T2WI MRI上10例表现为高/混杂信号,2例表现为低信号。血肿压迫脊髓程度(ESCC分级)与患者神经功能损伤程度(AISA分级)密切相关(r=0.85,P 0.01)。7例患者行手术治疗,其中5例术后神经功能有所恢复,2例术前ASIA分级为A级的患者末次随访时仍为A级;5例采用非手术治疗,治疗后神经功能均有所恢复,VAS评分下降。结论 MRI是诊断SSEH的最佳检查方法。根据患者神经功能损伤及进展情形,可选择非手术治疗或尽早手术治疗。     

Intracranial subdural haematoma following neuraxial anaesthesia in the obstetric population: a literature review with analysis of 56 reported cases

BackgroundIntracranial subdural haematoma is a rare but serious complication of neuraxial anaesthesia. With early diagnosis and treatment, severe neurological sequelae can be avoided. A literature search of intracranial subdural haematoma following neuraxial anaesthesia in obstetric patients was performed. Based on the findings, a flow chart on how to assess postpartum headache following a neuraxial procedure is proposed.MethodsMedline, Embase and Cochrane databases were searched for cases of intracranial subdural haematoma following neuraxial anaesthesia in obstetric patients. Epidemiological factors, clinical symptoms and signs, treatment, outcome and the effect of performing an epidural blood patch were assessed.ResultsReview of the literature identified 56 cases following neuraxial procedures (epidural n=34, spinal n=20, combined spinal-epidural n=2). Predisposing risk factors were present in only a minority of patients. Persistent headache that stopped responding to postural change was the most important symptom with occurrence in 83% of patients. Focal neurological signs were present in 69% of women. Eleven percent of women were left with residual neurological deficits; the mortality rate was 7%.ConclusionIntracranial subdural haematoma following neuraxial anaesthesia in obstetric patients is rare but serious complications may result. Vigilance is required whenever a headache becomes non-postural, prolonged and/or whenever focal neurological signs occur.     

Idiopathic Spinal Cord Herniation: Case Report and Literature Review

Summary  We report one case of spontaneous thoracic spinal cord herniation presenting with a progressive spastic paraparesis for 4 years in a 55 years old man. From preoperative MRI, showing a ventrally displaced atrophic spinal cord at T2–T3 level, a dorsal intradural arachnoid cyst was suspected. At operation, after a 3 level laminectomy, no arachnoid cyst was found and spinal cord herniation into a meningeal diverticulum was confirmed. The herniated myelon was replaced intradurally and the lumen of the diverticulum was filled with Teflon? settled with fibrin glue to prevent recurrence. Postoperatively some neurological recovery was achieved.  The literature was reviewed, regarding clinical and epidemiological features, proposed pathophysiological mechanisms, treatment options and outcome. Only 32 surgically proved cases of thoracic spinal cord herniation with no past history of spine trauma, injury or surgery were found.