Classification, staging, prognostic factors and risk factors in thyroid carcinoma

Thyroid carcinomas arise from follicular cells (papillary, follicular, Hurthle, anaplastic), parafollicular cells (medullary) and stroma (lymphoma, sarcoma). Gradation and prognostic factors are different for every one of histological type. Most patients with papillary and follicular thyroid cancer have an excellent prognosis. At the other extreme is anaplastic thyroid cancer whose usual mean survival can be measured in months. Exposure to external radiation and living in endemic goiter area increase the frequency of thyroid cancer. Medullary thyroid carcinoma is often familial and may occur in associations with the multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes.     

Needle biopsy of nodular thyroid disease

To evaluate nodular thyroid disease, 150 patients underwent 169 fine needle biopsies (FNB) and recently 28 have also had core needle biopsies (CNB). Multiple biopsies were required in 19 patients because of multiple lesions, reaccumulation of cysts, follow-up of nodules failing to regress, or inadequate material. Adequate material was obtained in 97 per cent of FNB and 92 per cent of CNB. FNB and CNB agreed in 20 of 28 cases. There were no complications with FNB and one patient (4%) hemorrhaged with CNB. Forty nine patients underwent thyroidectomy. Postoperative diagnoses include papillary carcinoma (9), follicular carcinoma (2), lymphoma (2), medullary carcinoma (1), metastatic carcinoma (1), benign nodular goiter (14), follicular neoplasm (15), and thyroiditis (5). Sixty per cent of patients avoided surgery, 61 per cent of operated specimens contained neoplasia and 31 per cent contained malignancy. Eighty seven per cent of malignancies were identified at the initial evaluation. FNB had 86 per cent sensitivity for neoplasia and 44 per cent specificity for neoplasm (94% for papillary carcinoma). CNB had 89 per cent sensitivity and 67 per cent specificity for neoplasm. FNB and CNB are useful means of assessing thyroid nodules for the presence of cancer. They can decrease the need for diagnostic thyroidectomy. However, clinical evaluation must still be used in conjunction when determining the need for thyroidectomy.     

Hyalinizing trabecular adenoma--an uncommon thyroid tumor frequently misdiagnosed as papillary or medullary thyroid carcinoma

BACKGROUND: Hyalinizing trabecular adenoma (HTA) is an uncommon benign thyroid tumor that can present as a solitary thyroid nodule, a prominent nodule in a multinodular goiter, or as an incidental finding in a thyroidectomy specimen. The clinical significance of the lesion is that it is frequently misdiagnosed as papillary carcinoma on fine-needle aspiration cytology or as papillary or medullary carcinoma on histopathological section. We reviewed our recent experience with 7 patients diagnosed with HTA. METHODS: Fine-needle aspiration biopsy was performed in 7 patients presenting with a solitary thyroid nodule (n = 4) or a multinodular goiter (n = 3). The patients underwent total thyroidectomy (n = 6) or hemithyroidectomy (n = 1). RESULTS: In 4 patients, the preoperative cytology was suggestive of papillary carcinoma, in 2 patients suspicious, and in 1 patient positive for papillary carcinoma. On histopathological section, 2 patients had a microscopic HTA, 2 patients had HTA in 1 or 2 nodules of a multinodular goiter, and 3 patients had HTA in a solitary nodule. Except in 1 patient, who had a microscopic focus (3.2 mm) of papillary carcinoma, there was no evidence of malignancy in the surgical specimens on permanent histopathological section. CONCLUSIONS: Although HTA is a rare condition of the thyroid, the surgeon needs to be aware of this entity to be able to better discuss the pathological findings with the patient, particularly since some pathologists and endocrinologists believe that HTA may represent a malignant neoplasm of low metastatic potential.     

Suspicious thyroid nodules 4 cm require a diagnostic lobectomy regardless of their benign fine needle aspiration results

Background/objectiveThe diagnostic accuracy of fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) seems limited in large thyroid nodules with Bethesda Cat. 2 result. We aimed to determine the incidence of carcinoma with benign cytology and the reason for the high false-positive rate in thyroid nodules ≥4 cm.MethodsThe records of 103 patients with thyroid nodules ≥4 cm with preoperative cytological diagnosis of Bethesda Cat. 2 who underwent thyroidectomy were consecutively reviewed. Characteristics between patients with malignant vs. benign pathology were compared.ResultsForty patients (38.8%) had malignancy. Malignancy was subclassified into follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma (43%), minimally invasive follicular thyroid carcinoma (20.0%), and minimally invasive Hurthle cell thyroid carcinoma (10.9%). Patients with malignant cytology had significantly more suspicious ultrasound findings than those with benign cytology (p = 0.001).ConclusionsPreoperative FNAB showed high false-negative rates in patients with thyroid nodules ≥4 cm with benign cytology. These nodules have a high malignancy rate with suspicious ultrasound findings.     

穿刺细胞学结合免疫组化诊断甲状腺癌

目的：探讨术前运用细针穿刺甲状腺结节行细胞学检查,结合穿刺细胞液相关免疫组化分析,进一步提高对甲状腺癌的术前诊断的准确率。方法：回顾分析本院2006年10月至2007年3月收治的甲状腺结节43例。术前均穿刺有疑问之甲状腺结节,作细胞学检查,同时结合免疫组化半乳凝集素-3、CK19、TPO进行分析,与手术后石蜡病理结果作比较。①在细胞学检查确诊的良、恶性病例中,细胞免疫组化指标仅作为参考。②而在细胞学诊断为可疑恶性时,免疫组化表达为半乳凝集素-3、CK19均阳性、TPO阴性者,作恶性诊断论;当表达为半乳凝集素-3、CK19均阴性、TPO阳性时,则作良性诊断论;其他种类表达归为可疑诊断。所有病例均接受手术治疗并经病理学检查证实。结果：术前细胞学诊断为乳头状癌者21例,可疑恶性14例,良性病变8例;14例细胞学诊断为可疑恶性的病例,结合免疫组化,10例诊断为乳头状癌,1例髓样癌,3例腺瘤。术后病理确定为乳头状癌31例,滤泡状癌2例,髓样癌1例,腺瘤8例,结节性甲状腺肿1例。43例细胞学诊断与术后病理符合率达62．8％。细胞学结合免疫组化诊断与术后病理符合率达90．7％,敏感性82.4％,特异性100％,阳性预测值100％,阴性预测值均为60％。结论：半乳凝集素-3、TPO和CK19检查有助于判断甲状腺结节的良、恶性;联合检查可提高诊断的准确性。甲状腺细针穿刺细胞学结合穿刺液的免疫组化分析,有助于提高甲状腺癌尤其是乳头状癌的检出率,减少漏诊和误诊。     

Pathologic nature of cystic thyroid nodules selected for surgery by needle aspiration biopsy

Sixty euthyroid patients with cystic hypofunctioning thyroid nodules were selected for operation by the criteria of evidence of needle aspiration of cyst fluid with malignant cytologic findings, suspicion of malignancy on the basis of recurrent cyst fluid formation after at least two aspirations, or incomplete decompression after aspiration. Other factors such as size (greater than 3 cm in diameter), history of radiation, and cervical lymphadenopathy were given weight. Radiation exposure occurred in 14% of patients. Surgical pathologic findings revealed malignancy in 32%, adenoma in 43%, and colloid nodule in 25%, with a total neoplasia rate of 75%. The types of malignant tumors included six papillary, six mixed, three follicular, and four Hurthle. Surgical treatment included 26 near total thyroidectomies, 34 partial thyroidectomies, and four neck dissections without major morbidity or deaths. Cytologic false-negative rates were 50% cancer, 50% Hurthle cell 50%, and 60% adenoma, even after nucleopore filtration, emphasizing the value of surgical selection on the basis of cyst response to aspiration. Cytologic false-positive rate in the colloid group was 6% and 25% for false (solid) positive for echography. Bloody fluid occurred in all types of lesions but was more common in the cancer group. Thyroid ultrasonography does not appear to be an important way to assess thyroid nodular disease and has been, in our estimation, superseded by needle aspiration cytology. It should be recognized that cystic thyroid nodules, when selected for operation on the basis of the above mentioned needle biopsy and clinical criteria, have the same frequency of neoplasia and cancer as solid hypofunctioning thyroid nodules. Hence, it is recommended that all cystic lesions of the thyroid gland be assessed in accordance with such criteria to exclude underlying cancer.     

Fine needle aspiration of neck tumor. Application of cytological, bacteriological and hormonal examinations

Aspiration of neck tumors with a fine needle combined with cytological, bacteriological and hormonal examinations greatly improved the accuracy of the differential diagnosis of the neck tumors. Fine needle aspiration cytology in 45 patients with thyroid tumor gave only 4% (1/25) false negative diagnosis and 0% (0/20) false positive diagnosis for carcinoma, whereas false negative and false positive diagnosis by palpation were 34% and 4%, respectively and those by soft tissue roentgenogram were 55% and 0%, respectively. Differential diagnosis of histological types of thyroid carcinoma was possible by cytology. Fine needle aspiration of cervical lymph nodes gave the diagnosis of malignant lymphoma, metastatic squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma or inflammatory changes. Bacterial culture from the aspirate yielded causative microorganism in 5 patients including 4 with tuberculosis. The specimens aspirated from thyroglossal duct cysts or branchial cysts showed specific appearance and cytological feature. The aspirate from a parathyroid cyst was watery clear and contained high amount of parathyroid hormone. Dark brown serous aspirate from extrathyroidal mass suggested metastatic lesion from occult papillary carcinoma of the thyroid in 2 patients. Demonstration of very high content of thyroglobulin of the aspirate determined by radioimmunoassay supported the diagnosis, which was confirmed later at surgery. This method has become a routine work in our out-patient clinic.     

Fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the preoperative assessment of thyroid nodules in an endemic goiter area

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography ((18)F-FDG PET) in the preoperative assessment of suspicious thyroid nodules. METHODS: A total of 43 patients were examined before surgical resection. In all patients, imaging was obtained at 70 minutes after the intravenous administration of 180 MBq (18)F-FDG. Standard uptake values (SUVs) were calculated. RESULTS: A total of 16 patients with thyroid carcinomas (11 papillary, 3 follicular, 2 anaplastic), 23 thyroid adenomas (11 microfollicular, 10 Hurthle cell, 2 macrofollicular), and 4 patients with degenerative goiter were found. (18)F-FDG uptake in Hurthle cell adenoma, thyroid cancer, microfollicular adenoma, degenerative goiter, and macrofollicular adenoma was 4.4 +/- 2.2, 3.7 +/- 1.9, 1.6 +/- 0.3, 1.2 +/- 0.2, and 0.9 +/- 0.1, respectively. Significant differences were observed between thyroid carcinomas and both microfollicular adenomas and degenerative goiters (P < 0.05), and between Hurthle cell adenomas and both microfollicular adenomas as well as degenerative goiter (P < 0.05). For diagnosis of thyroid carcinoma, 100% sensitivity, 63% specificity, and 100% negative predictive value was found when a cutoff value for SUV of 2 was used. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that thyroid carcinomas, in contrast to most benign thyroid nodules, demonstrate significantly increased glucose metabolism. (18)F-FDG PET is unlikely to differentiate successfully all benign tumors from malignant tumors, but it can help select patients who need surgery, especially if cytology is inconclusive or malignancy cannot be excluded.     

Nuclear DNA content and prognosis in Hürthle cell tumours of the thyroid gland

The prognostic value of nuclear DNA content in Hürthle cell tumours of the thyroid was studied in 23 patients with more than 10 years follow up. Eleven of these neoplasms were classified as Hürthle cell carcinoma and 12 as adenoma. DNA measurements in morphologically identified single tumour cells were performed either on fine needle aspiration biopsy material or on histological sections from the primary tumours. The nuclear DNA content identifies those patients with a good versus a bad prognosis. These results correlate well with the findings in earlier studies about papillary, follicular and medullary thyroid tumours.     

Characterization of the neoplastic potential of solitary solid thyroid lesions with Tc-99m-Pertechnetate and Tc-99m-sestamibi scanning

Background: Radionuclide scans that use Tc-99m-pertechnetate or I-123 currently lack the specificity to assess the malignant potential of solitary solid lesions of the thyroid gland. Tc-99m-sestamibi scanning was used to determine the neoplastic potential of thyroid lesions. Methods: Patients with lesions of the thyroid underwent Tc-99m-sestamibi imaging to assess the neoplastic potential of their thyroid lesions, identified as solitary and cold by radionuclide imaging with Tc-99m-pertechnetate. Tc-99m-sestamibi uptake was correlated with fine-needle aspiration cytology or surgical pathology. Results: Twenty-seven patients were evaluated using Tc-99m-pertechnetate and Tc-99m-sestamibi scans: 14 had right thyroid lesions, and 13 had left thyroid lesions. Of 27 patients, 10 had a positive Tc-99m-sestamibi scan: one Hürthle cell adenoma, one papillary carcinoma, six follicular adenomas, and two nodular goiters. Of 27 patients, 17 had a negative Tc-99m-sestamibi scan: one follicular carcinoma, one papillary carcinoma, two follicular adenomas, one Hürthle cell adenoma, one metastatic adenocarcinoma, one medullary carcinoma, four nodular goiters, and six colloid nodules. Positive Tc-99m-sestamibi scan identified neoplasms with a sensitivity of 53%, a specificity of 83%, and a positive predictive value of 80%. Conclusions: Tc-99m-sestamibi scanning lacks sufficient sensitivity for diagnosis of solitary thyroid nodules. Future work may define a role for its use in recurrent or metastatic thyroid neoplasms. Presented at the 47th Annual Cancer Symposium of The Society of Surgical Oncology, March 17–20, 1994, Houston, TX.     

Hemithyroidectomy: the preferred initial surgical approach for management of Hurthle cell neoplasm

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to evaluate the cancer risk of patient clinicopathologic characteristics to determine the optimal approach for the surgical management of individuals with Hurthle cell neoplasm (HN) diagnosed by cytology. METHODS: Patient clinicopathologic characteristics evaluated included age, sex, tumor size, and ipsilateral thyroid lobe nodularity. The association of these characteristics with a pathologic cancer diagnosis was evaluated using Fisher's exact test and Student t test. RESULTS: Of the 422 patients undergoing thyroidectomy, 27 presented with a fine-needle aspiration biopsy diagnosis of HN, and by pathologic assessment 7 HN patients (25.9%) had a cancer diagnosis. Although none of the clinicopathologic characteristics evaluated were able to reliably differentiate benign from malignant tumors, large tumor size and male sex were significantly associated with a pathologic diagnosis of Hurthle cell carcinoma (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Hemithyroidectomy represents the preferred initial surgical approach for the management of individuals presenting with nodular thyroid disease and a cytologic diagnosis of HN.     

Clinical parameters predictive of malignancy of thyroid follicular neoplasms

Needle aspiration biopsy is commonly employed in the evaluation of thyroid nodules. Unfortunately, the cytologic finding of a "follicular neoplasm" does not distinguish between a thyroid adenoma and a follicular cancer. The purpose of this study was to identify clinical parameters that characterize patients with an increased risk of having a thyroid follicular cancer who preoperatively have a "follicular neoplasm" identified by needle aspiration biopsy. A total of 395 patients initially treated at Vancouver General Hospital and the British Columbia Cancer Agency between the years of 1965 and 1985 were identified and their data were entered into a computer database. Patients with thyroid adenomas were compared to patients with follicular cancer using the chi-square test and Student's t-test. Statistically significant parameters that distinguished patients at risk of having a thyroid cancer (p less than 0.05) included age greater than 50 years, nodule size greater than 3 cm, and a history of neck irradiation. Sex, family history of goiter or neoplasm, alcohol and tobacco use, and use of exogenous estrogen were not significant parameters. Patients can be identified preoperatively to be at an increased risk of having a follicular cancer and accordingly appropriate surgical resection can be planned.     

Thyroid cancer: The Kuala Lumpur experience

Background: There have been few detailed studies on thyroid cancer (TC) in Malaysia, a multiethnic country with three major races ? Malays, Chinese and Indians. Methods: The paper retrospectively audits the records of 107 consecutive cases with histologically proven thyroid cancer between 1995 and 2000 presenting to University Hospital, Kuala Lumpur. The demographic distribution, histological variants, mode of presentation, sensitivity of fine needle aspiration cytology and the modalities of treatment are examined in the present paper. Results: Of a total of 107 cases of TC, 74 were papillary, 23 follicular, one Hurthle Cell, seven medullary and two anaplastic. There were 91 women and 16 men; the corresponding median age of presentation being 34.0 and 40.0 years. The median age at presentation of TC was 36 years in the Malay population, 37 in the Chinese population and 33 in the Indian population. Fifty‐six per cent of follicular cancer incidence was in the Malay population alone, the remaining in the other populations. Solitary thyroid nodule was seen in 75 patients, generalized enlargement in 20 and no goiter in 11. Local symptoms were reported in <10% of patients. Preoperative FNAC had a sensitivity of 72.26%. Of 98 patients with well‐differentiated TC (WDTC), total thyroidectomy was employed in 92. Surgery alone was used in 48 cases and combined with radioactive iodine ablation in the remaining 50. Conclusion: All histological variants of TC are represented in the study. Well‐differentiated TC forms the bulk with papillary cancer having the largest percentage. Follicular cancer is more common in the Malay population. Total thyroidectomy in WDTC, although controversial, remains the mainstay of surgical treatment in Malaysia.     

The coexistence of anaplastic and papillary carcinomas of the thyroid: a case presentation and literature review

Papillary carcinomas of the thyroid are the most common malignant growth affecting the thyroid, currently representing 60-65 per cent of malignant thyroid neoplasm. Although the etiology of this neoplasm is unknown, they are thought to be related to neck irradiation, adenoma transformation, and Hashimoto thyroiditis. Papillary carcinomas are usually purely papillary but occasionally have areas of histologically different neoplasm, most commonly follicular. Overall, these carcinomas represent an indolent group of neoplasm and have an excellent prognosis. The occurrence of an anaplastic area in a papillary carcinoma represents the dedifferentiation of the primary neoplasm. This is an extremely rare occurrence and is considered to have negative prognostic significance. The purpose of this presentation is to discuss an unusual clinical case of a coexisting anaplastic and papillary carcinoma of the thyroid, diagnosed by fine needle aspiration (FNA) analysis presenting in a 67-year-old African-American woman. Evaluation and treatment will be discussed.     

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??Significance of fine needle aspiration cytology in the diagnosis of thyroid cancers PING Bo. Department of Pathology??Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center;Department of Oncology??Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University??Shanghai200032??China
Abstract Fine needle aspiration (FNA) of thyroid gland remains to be the most accurate and cost-effective evaluation method for thyroid nodules, though it is not able to distinguish between follicular carcinoma and follicular adenoma. The application of FNA in thyroid surgical decision making and planning may significantly reduce the amount of surgical procedures during the management of thyroid nodules, and thus may increase the detection rate of malignancy by operation, save medical resources, and finally diminish the unnecessary loss of the patients caused by over practice.     

桥本病合并甲状腺结节的外科治疗

目的 探讨桥本病(HD)并存甲状腺结节的诊治经验.方法 回顾分析我院1995年至2008年手术治疗的,以结节形式为主要症状的187例HD的临床资料.结果 HD并存甲状腺癌21例(11.2%),结节性甲状腺肿50例(26.7%),甲状腺滤泡性腺瘤28例(15%),淋巴瘤3例(1.6%),采取了不同范围的手术方式,术后均服用甲状腺素片.结论 对于HD并存甲状腺结节尤其单结节患者,如临床资料不能除外恶性肿瘤均应积极手术.B超及细胞学穿刺有助于术前诊断,而术中快速病理检查是确诊的有效方法,并指导手术方案的制定.     

Expression of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor and Presence of Angiovascular Cells in Tissues from Different Thyroid Disorders

Background

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is involved in tumor angiogenesis and other pathophysiological processes.

Materials and methods

We studied the localization of VEGF in human thyroid tissues to clarify its involvement in proliferative processes in a variety of thyroid disorders. Immunohistochemical analysis using purified rabbit polyclonal anti-human VEGF or anti-human CD34 antibody and a streptavidin–biotin peroxidase complex detection system was performed on 58 tissue specimens from 53 patients with different thyroid disorders and 5 normal thyroid glands.

Results

Vascular endothelial growth factor was not detected in normal thyroid follicular cells. However, some thyroid tumor cells expressed VEGF in the cytoplasm (papillary carcinoma, 10/18; follicular carcinoma, 1/3; medullary carcinoma, 2/2; follicular adenoma, 3/11; adenomatous goiter, 2/4). In benign follicular adenoma and adenomatous goiter, weak expression of VEGF was found in small areas of the tumor, whereas in malignant thyroid tumors, it was strongly expressed in many cells. However, VEGF was not expressed in anaplastic carcinoma, malignant lymphoma, or Graves’ disease. Angiovascular cells stained with CD34 antibody in tissues from different thyroid disorders reflected statistically significant differences in papillary carcinoma, follicular adenoma, and Graves’ disease compared with normal thyroids, and such cells showed a trend toward increases in medullary carcinoma and adenomatous goiter. In contrast, low vascularity was observed in anaplastic carcinoma, malignant lymphoma, and follicular carcinoma.

Conclusions

Because VEGF probably functions as a hypoxia-inducible angiogenic factor, overexpression of this mediator, concomitant with hypervascularity, may be induced more strongly in malignant thyroid tumors, which need more oxygen to proliferate, than in benign follicular tumors. However, neither VEGF nor CD34 was expressed in anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, which is an extremely poorly differentiated malignant tumor. CD34 but not VEGF was expressed in the hyperplastic thyroid tissues of Graves’ disease composed of nontransformed cells. Thus, the expression of VEGF concomitant with CD34 is suggested to reflect both the transformation and differentiation state of malignant tumors.     

CD10在甲状腺疾病中的表达及意义

目的研究CD10在甲状腺疾病中的表达及意义。方法收集70例甲状腺良、恶性病变组织,其中15例滤泡性腺瘤、15例腺瘤性甲状腺肿、30例乳头状癌和10例滤泡性癌。采用免疫组织化学的方法检测CD10在上述病变中的表达。结果9例滤泡型乳头状癌中,7例表达CD10,CD10阳性率为77％。10例滤泡性癌中,8例表达CD10,阳性率为80％。而在滤泡性腺瘤和腺瘤性甲状腺肿及21例普通型乳头状癌组织中CD10均不表达。CD10在滤泡型乳头状癌和滤泡性癌中的阳性率显著高于滤泡性腺瘤和腺瘤性甲状腺肿中的阳性率（P〈0．01）。结论对CD10表达的检测有助于对甲状腺滤泡性癌和滤泡型乳头状癌的诊断。     

Cytological diagnosis of thyroid disease

Fine needle aspiration biopsy cytology (ABC) is a morphological method, which may be used as an "office" procedure for all palpable lesions. Hyperplastic and inflammatory conditions of the thyroid and various types of neoplasms produce readily recognizable features in cytological smears. About 90% of all thyroid cancers may be diagnosed by aspiration cytology. The method bridges the diagnostic gap between initial palpatory examination and histological diagnosis and can greatly reduce the need for diagnostic surgery. The accuracy of the method has been shown to be superior to that of other non-invasive clinical methods. ABC enables the surgeon not only to better select patients with thyroid nodules who might benefit from surgery, but also to plan a definite operative strategy in papillar medullary and anaplastic cancer. In follicular neoplasms the method can not distinguish with certainty between adenoma and carcinoma. Fine needle aspiration requires no anesthesia. It has no complications and there is good patient acceptance and biopsies can therefore be repeated whenever needed.     

Does frozen section have a role in the intraoperative management of thyroid nodules?

Background: Frozen section in thyroid surgery is used to make an intraoperative pathological diagnosis of malignancy in a thyroid nodule at the time of hemithyroidectomy. A positive diagnosis allows completion of thyroidectomy, thus avoiding reoperation. However, the use of fine needle aspiration cytology in making a preoperative diagnosis of cancer has resulted in the lack of a defined role for frozen section. We examined the role of frozen section as an adjunct to fine needle aspiration cytology in determining which cytological subset will benefit from frozen section. Methods: All patients who underwent thyroidectomy between 1992 and 2000 by a single endocrine surgeon were reviewed. Results: Two hundred and nine frozen sections were performed, of which 144 underwent preoperative fine needle aspiration cytology. Frozen sections reported 135 benign nodules, 59 follicular neoplasms, five specimens with suspicious histology and 10 cancers. Ten out of 20 thyroid cancers were correctly identified by frozen section (sensitivity: 50%; specificity: 100%), eight cancers were reported on frozen section as indeterminate and two benign. Of 144 fine needle aspiration cytological procedures, frozen section on seven suspicious aspirates identified two cancers, and frozen section on 70 follicular aspirates identified four cancers, allowing intraoperative conversions to total thyroidectomy. Frozen section on seven malignant aspirates confirmed four cancers but resulted in reoperation for three because of the indeterminate frozen section reports. There were no cancers found on 135 benign aspirates. Conclusions: Frozen section on benign aspirates is unhelpful in the management of thyroid nodules. It need not be performed for cytologically proven malignant thyroid nodules. Selective use of frozen section complements fine needle aspiration cytology findings of suspicious or follicular lesions, especially in the subset with papillary cancer, allowing one-stage total thyroidectomy.