Genetic susceptibility and caspase activation in mouse and human macrophages are distinct for Legionella longbeachae and L. pneumophila

Legionella pneumophila is the predominant cause of Legionnaires' disease in the United States and Europe, while Legionella longbeachae is the common cause of the disease in Western Australia. Although clinical manifestations by both intracellular pathogens are very similar, recent studies have shown that phagosome biogeneses of both species within human macrophages are distinct (R. Asare and Y. Abu Kwaik, Cell. Microbiol., in press). Most inbred mouse strains are resistant to infection by L. pneumophila, with the exception of the A/J mouse strain, and this genetic susceptibility is associated with polymorphism in the naip5 allele and flagellin-mediated early activation of caspase 1 and pyropoptosis in nonpermissive mouse macrophages. Here, we show that genetic susceptibility of mice to infection by L. longbeachae is independent of allelic polymorphism of naip5. L. longbeachae replicates within bone marrow-derived macrophages and in the lungs of A/J, C57BL/6, and BALB/c mice, while L. pneumophila replicates in macrophages in vitro and in the lungs of the A/J mouse strain only. Quantitative real-time PCR studies on infected A/J and C57BL/6 mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages show that both L. longbeachae and L. pneumophila trigger similar levels of naip5 expression, but the levels are higher in infected C57BL/6 mouse macrophages. In contrast to L. pneumophila, L. longbeachae has no detectable pore-forming activity and does not activate caspase 1 in A/J and C57BL/6 mouse or human macrophages, despite flagellation. Unlike L. pneumophila, L. longbeachae triggers only a modest activation of caspase 3 and low levels of apoptosis in human and murine macrophages in vitro and in the lungs of infected mice at late stages of infection. We conclude that despite flagellation, infection by L. longbeachae is independent of polymorphism in the naip5 allele and L. longbeachae does not trigger the activation of caspase 1, caspase 3, or late-stage apoptosis in mouse and human macrophages. Neither species triggers caspase 1 activation in human macrophages.     

Induction of apoptosis by Hypericin through activation of caspase-3 in human carcinoma cells

Potent photosensitizer Hypericin (HY), is a lipid soluble perylquinone derivative of the genus Hypericum and has a strong photodynamic effect on tumors and viruses. However, the mechanisms of tumor cell death induced by this compound is still unclear. Furthermore, there are no reports on mechanisms in cell apoptosis induced by perylquinones in human nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and other mucosal cells. We studied the photodynamic effects of HY compound in poorly differentiated (CNE2) and moderately differentiated (TW0-1) human NPC cells as well as human mucosal colon (CCL-220.1) and bladder (SD) cells. Using these cell lines we investigated few hall marks of apoptotic commitments in a drug and light dose dependent manner. Tumor cells photoactivated with HY showed cell size shrinkage and an increase in the sub-diploid DNA content. A loss of membrane phospholipid asymmetry associated with apoptosis was induced in all tumor cell lines as evidenced by the externalization of phosphatidylserine. Under apoptotic conditions, Western blot analysis of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, a caspase substrate, showed the classical cleavage pattern (116-85 kDa) associated with apoptosis in PDT-treated cell lysates. In addition, 85 kDa cleaved product was blocked by using tetrapeptide caspase inhibitors such as DEVD-CHO or z-VAD-fmk. These results demonstrate that tumor cell death induced by photoactivated HY is mediated by caspase proteases. This study also identifies that CNE2, CCL-220.1 (colon) and SD (bladder) cell lines are more sensitive than TW0-1 cell line to PDT using perylquinone HY.     

Cepharanthine induces apoptosis through the mitochondria/caspase pathway in murine dendritic cells

Context: Cepharanthine (CEP) is a biscoclaurine amphipathic alkaloid isolated from the plant Stephania cepharantha Hayata. Although the effects of CEP on several types of cells have been investigated, those on dendritic cells (DCs) are poorly understood.

Objective: To investigate the effect of CEP on the induction of apoptosis in murine DCs.

Materials and methods: The induction of Annexin V/propidium iodide-positive cells and permeability of mitochondrial membrane potential were evaluated in DCs treated with CEP. Cell-associated caspase activity and DNA fragmentation were analyzed by Dual Sensor: MitoCasp? and agarose gel electrophoresis, respectively.

Results: The number of dead cells was increased by CEP treatment at concentrations more than 10?μg/ml. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that the cell death was found to be apoptosis, CEP treatment reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and upregulated the level of cleaved caspases, including caspase-9 and caspase-3/7, in a dose-dependent fashion. Furthermore, DNA fragmentation was observed in CEP-treated DCs.

Conclusion: CEP is capable of inducing apoptosis and may be a potential agent against DC-mediated and allergic diseases.     

In vitro activation of human macrophages by alginate-polylysine microcapsules

Microencapsulated islets of Langerhans have been proposed as a bioartificial pancreas. However, foreign body reaction with fibrosis has been observed around implanted microcapsules. Since macrophages are present in this reaction and interleukin-1 (IL-1), a cytokine released by activated macrophages, may induce fibrosis, we tested the capacity of alginate-polylysine microcapsules to activate macrophages. Human monocytes were isolated from whole blood of healthy donors by a Ficoll density gradient and adherence to a plastic support. Monocytes were cultured for 24 h with: (1) alginate-polylysine microcapsules; (2) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (positive control group); and (3) alone (negative control group). Monocyte activation was evaluated by measuring the secretion of IL-1β and the production of intracellular IL-1α and IL-1β. Macrophages characterization was performed by immunocytological subtyping. IL-1β release and intracellular IL-1β and IL-1β production were significantly higher when macrophages were cultured with alginate-polylysine microcapsules than when macrophages were cultured alone. In conclusion, macrophages are activated in vitro by alginate-polylysine microcapsules. This effect may be involved in the fibrosis observed in vivo around implanted microcapsules. In addition, interleukin-1, released during macrophage activation, may cross the microcapsule membrane and impair islet function.     

Community-acquired pneumonia caused by Legionella longbeachae in an immunocompetent patient

Reported here is the case of a previously healthy 67-year-old man who was admitted to the intensive care unit with pneumonia caused by Legionella longbeachae. The organism was identified in sputum and serum by 16S rRNA-based PCR assay and sequence-based typing. One acute serum sample produced a single elevated IgM antibody titer of 1:512 against non-pneumophila Legionella spp. The patient fully recovered following the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment. Since most current laboratory tests for Legionella spp. cannot detect infections caused by non-pneumophila Legionella spp., culture on Legionella-selective media or PCR should be considered when diagnosing severe pneumonia of unknown etiology.     

人白细胞介素1β通过caspase途径诱导人黑色素瘤A375-S2细胞凋亡

目的:对interleukin-1β(IL-1β)诱导人黑色素瘤A375-S2细胞凋亡的信号转导途径进行研究。方法:使用倒置显微镜观察细胞形态学变化。通过MTT法测定IL-1β对A375-S2细胞的抑制作用以及细胞内半胱氨酸蛋白酶(caspases)与这种作用的关系。利用乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)测定法对IL-1β作用后细胞的损伤情况进行分析。琼脂糖凝胶电泳法检测IL-1β对细胞DNA降解的影响。结果: IL-1β对A375-S2细胞的抑制作用呈剂量和时间依赖性,在10^-9mol/L作用72 h时达到90%以上。caspase-1、-3、-8、-9和caspase-10的抑制剂能够部分抑制IL-1β早期诱导的细胞凋亡。 LDH活力测定显示,在IL-1β诱导的细胞死亡过程中,凋亡占主导地位,并呈现剂量和时间依赖性 。细胞经过10^-11mol/L IL-1β处理72 h后,出现凋亡典型的DNA梯状条带,与上述结果一致。 结论: IL-1β能够诱导人黑色素瘤A375-S2细胞凋亡,这种作用可能依赖于激活一类介导凋亡的caspase家族蛋白酶。     

Cigarette smoke prevents apoptosis through inhibition of caspase activation and induces necrosis

Emphysema is characterized by enlargement of the distal airspaces in the lungs due to destruction of alveolar walls. Alveolar endothelial and epithelial cell apoptosis induced by cigarette smoke is thought to be a possible mechanism for this cell loss. In contrast, our studies show that cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) induces necrosis in alveolar epithelial cells and human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Furthermore, study of the cell death pathway in a model system using Jurkat cells revealed that in addition to inducing necrosis, CSC inhibited apoptosis induced by staurosporine or Fas ligation, with both effects prevented by the antioxidants glutathione and dithiothreitol. Time course experiments revealed that CSC inhibited an early step in the caspase cascade, whereby caspase-3 was not activated. Moreover, cell-free reconstitution of the apoptosome in cytoplasmic extracts from CSC-treated cells, by addition of cytochrome-c and dATP, did not result in activation of caspases-3 or -9. Thus, smoke treatment may alter the levels of pro- and antiapoptogenic factors downstream of the mitochondria to inhibit active apoptosome formation. Therefore, unlike previous studies, cell death in response to cigarette smoke by necrosis and not apoptosis may be responsible for the loss of alveolar walls and inflammation observed in emphysema.     

问号钩端螺旋体经线粒体相关信号通路诱导巨噬细胞凋亡的研究

目的 确定线粒体相关信号转导途径在问号钩端螺旋体(简称钩体)诱导小鼠单核-巨噬细胞凋亡过程中的作用.方法 建立问号钩体黄疸出血群赖株诱导小鼠单核-巨噬样细胞株J774A.1凋亡模型.采用透射电镜观察感染细胞线粒体病变情况,JC-1染色法检测感染细胞线粒体膜电位变化,荧光探针DCFH-DA检测感染细胞内活性氧(ROS)水平.采用试剂盒检测感染细胞caspase-8和caspage-9活性变化.流式细胞术检测感染细胞凋亡情况以及cagpage阻断剂阻断凋亡的效果.采用Western blot检测线粒体内和胞质中的细胞色素c(cytc)以及凋亡诱导因子(Air)、核酸内切酶G(EndoG)和Smac水平.应用免疫荧光染色法检测AIF和EndoG从细胞质至核内的转位.结果 问号钩体赖株可诱导J774A.1细胞凋亡.感染细胞的线粒体有明显病变,线粒体膜电位降低且胞内活性氧水平升高.感染细胞caspage-8活化,caspase-9则否,但caspase阻断剂不能完全阻断细胞凋亡.感染细胞AIF和EndoG从线粒体释放至胞质并转位至细胞核内.未检测到感染细胞胞质内CytC水平升高及Smac的释放.结论 线粒体可通过非caspase途径的AIF和EndoG参与问号钩体诱导单核一巨噬细胞凋亡的过程.     

问号钩端螺旋体经线粒体相关信号通路诱导巨噬细胞凋亡的研究

目的 确定线粒体相关信号转导途径在问号钩端螺旋体(简称钩体)诱导小鼠单核-巨噬细胞凋亡过程中的作用.方法 建立问号钩体黄疸出血群赖株诱导小鼠单核-巨噬样细胞株J774A.1凋亡模型.采用透射电镜观察感染细胞线粒体病变情况,JC-1染色法检测感染细胞线粒体膜电位变化,荧光探针DCFH-DA检测感染细胞内活性氧(ROS)水平.采用试剂盒检测感染细胞caspase-8和caspage-9活性变化.流式细胞术检测感染细胞凋亡情况以及cagpage阻断剂阻断凋亡的效果.采用Western blot检测线粒体内和胞质中的细胞色素c(cytc)以及凋亡诱导因子(Air)、核酸内切酶G(EndoG)和Smac水平.应用免疫荧光染色法检测AIF和EndoG从细胞质至核内的转位.结果 问号钩体赖株可诱导J774A.1细胞凋亡.感染细胞的线粒体有明显病变,线粒体膜电位降低且胞内活性氧水平升高.感染细胞caspage-8活化,caspase-9则否,但caspase阻断剂不能完全阻断细胞凋亡.感染细胞AIF和EndoG从线粒体释放至胞质并转位至细胞核内.未检测到感染细胞胞质内CytC水平升高及Smac的释放.结论 线粒体可通过非caspase途径的AIF和EndoG参与问号钩体诱导单核一巨噬细胞凋亡的过程.     

Mercury-induced apoptosis in human lymphocytes: caspase activation is linked to redox status

There is growing evidence that heavy metals, in general, and mercurial compounds, in particular, are toxic to the human immune system. We have previously shown that methyl mercuric chloride (MeHgCl) is a potent human T-cell apoptogen; moreover, mitochondria appear to be a target organelle for the induction of cell death. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of MeHgCl on mitochondrial function in lymphocytes in terms of modulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, thiol status, and caspase activation. Using the fluorescent probe, 3,3'-dihexyloxacarbocyanine, we demonstrated that exposure to MeHgCl for 1 h resulted in a profound decrease in the mitochondrial transmembrane potential. We next observed the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria into the cytosol; significant translocation was noted between 4 and 8 h following treatment with mercury. ROS generation was monitored by following the conversion of dihydroethidium to the fluorescent product, ethidium. Kinetic analysis indicated that ROS generation was maximal after 16 h of exposure to MeHgCl. The toxicant also depleted the thiol reserves of the cell; glutathione levels were depleted in a dose-dependent fashion reaching minimal levels at 16 h. Real-time RT-PCR analysis demonstrated a significant reduction in both glutathione S-transferase and glutathione peroxidase gene expression in mercury-treated cells. Finally, after 16 h of treatment with MeHgCl, we observed activation of caspase-8, -9, and -3 along with increased expression of caspase-8 and -9. We propose that the target organelle for MeHgCl is the mitochondrion and that induction of oxidative stress is critical to activation of death-signaling pathways. Additonally, mercury acts as a genotoxin significantly altering the expression of genes that affect cell survival and apoptosis.     

Induction of apoptosis in Vero cells by Newcastle disease virus requires viral replication, de-novo protein synthesis and caspase activation

Newcastle disease virus causes (NDV) apoptotic death of infected cells. In the present study, the stimulus that provoked the induction of apoptosis in infected cells was examined. Vero cells infected with NDV developed apoptosis as characterized by DNA fragmentation and decreased DNA content. In presence of ammonium chloride, infected cells did not show reduced DNA content indicating the requirement of virus entry for the induction of apoptosis. UV-inactivated NDV did not induce apoptosis in cells suggesting the need of virus replication. Although cycloheximide blocked NDV-induced apoptosis, actinomycin-D did not, suggesting that de-novo viral protein synthesis was critical for the induction of apoptosis. In addition, activation of caspases was also detected by flowcytometry, indirect fluorescent and colorimetric assays. Based on the results, it was concluded that NDV-induced apoptosis in Vero cells required virus replication, de-novo protein synthesis and caspase activation.     

Granzyme B-induced apoptosis requires both direct caspase activation and relief of caspase inhibition

Cytotoxic lymphocytes employ Granzyme B as a potent initiator of apoptosis to cleave and activate effector caspases. Unexpectedly, cells transfected with Bcl-2 were resistant to granzyme B-induced killing, suggesting that a mitochondrial pathway was critical. Utilizing cells expressing a dominant-negative caspase 9, the current study demonstrated that caspase activation via the apoptosome was not required. Indeed, cleavage of caspase 3 to p20 still occurred in Bcl-2-transfectants but processing to p17 was blocked. This blockade was recapitulated by the Inhibitor-of-Apoptosis-Protein XIAP and relieved by Smac/DIABLO. Thus granzyme B mediates direct cleavage of caspase 3 and also activates mitochondrial disruption, resulting in the release of proapoptotic proteins that suppress caspase inhibition. Engagement of both pathways is critical for granzyme-induced killing.     

Nuclear factor-kappaB and caspases co-operatively regulate the activation and apoptosis of human macrophages

Accumulating evidence suggests that macrophages function as major effector cells in the pathological process of various human diseases. We examined here the role of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and caspases in the regulation of activation and apoptosis of macrophages. Activation of the human monoblastic leukaemia cell line, U937, by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) increased the expression of CD14/CD86, and cytokine production. PMA stimulation also increased the expression of both pro-caspase-8 and pro-caspase-3 in U937, but not apoptosis or intracellular caspase-3 activity. PMA also increased the expression of X-chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) in U937, suggesting an inhibitory action for XIAP on the caspase cascade in PMA-stimulated U937. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) showed a significant increase of nuclear NF-kappaB activity in PMA-stimulated U937. When a potent NF-kappaB inhibitor, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), was added to U937 cell culture in the presence of PMA, apoptosis was triggered by activation of caspase-3, which was induced by caspase-8 activation. XIAP expression was markedly suppressed in PMA-treated U937 in the presence of PDTC. The inhibitors of caspase-8 and caspase-3 mostly inhibited apoptosis of U937 treated with PMA in the presence of PDTC. Furthermore, a phenotype of U937 treated with PMA and PDTC in the presence of caspase inhibitor was almost identical to that of unstimulated U937. Our results suggest that the signalling pathways involved in the activation and apoptosis of human macrophages could be co-operatively regulated by the use of NF-kappaB and caspase inhibitors, thus enabling the control of macrophage function and number.     

Induction of an activation antigen on human endothelial cells in vitro

This study describes the expression characteristics of a cell membrane protein recognized by a monoclonal antibody ENA1, which was obtained by immunizing mice with human umbilical vein endothelial (HUVE) cells cultured with a mixture of interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. The expression of this ENA1 antigen could also be induced by lipopolysaccharide and phorbol esters. Expression was only demonstrated on HUVE cells and human umbilical arterial endothelial cells, pretreated with one or with a mixture of these reagents. No expression was detected on human fibroblasts, renal epithelial cells or on mesothelial cells derived from omental tissue, either pretreated or not with the aforementioned inducers of the antigen. Furthermore, no reactivity was observed with either polymorphonuclear cells, peripheral blood lymphocytes or the monocytic cell line U937. Time course experiments revealed that the expression of the ENA1 antigen was time dependent. Maximal expression on HUVE cells was observed after 5 h of incubation with activator, after which a decline in expression occurred. Induction of expression could be completely blocked by the mRNA synthesis inhibitor actinomycin D and the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide, indicating that de novo synthesis occurs. Other pharmacological reagents tested had no effect on the induction of ENA1 expression. The putative role of the newly described antigen is discussed in relation to the current knowledge of molecules involved in adhesion of immune cells in inflammatory processes.     

In vitro synthesis of factor B of the alternative pathway of complement activation by mouse peritoneal macrophages.

Factor B of the alternative pathway of complement activation was shown to be synthesized and secreted by unstimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages. The activity of B in the culture supernatants from macrophage monolayers was detected by consumption of C3 in reaction mixtures containing supernatant and guinea pig factors C3, D and insoluble C3b. Using a monospecific antiserum, factor B in concentrated culture supernatants was shown by immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis to be identical to factor B in mouse plasma and to form a characteristic complex with cobra venom factor in the presence of D. A steady rate of factor B secretion was observed for 4 days providing the medium was changed every 24 h. Cycloheximide (0.5 mug/ml), an inhibitor of protein synthesis, caused inhibition (90%) of factor B production. Incubation of culture medium containing 14C-labeled amino acids with the macrophage monolayer resulted in incorporation of radioactivity into factor B as detected by autoradiography of precipitation lines formed with anti-B antiserum; This indicated that synthesis of factor B had occurred. In the same culture supernatants the presence of newly synthesized C3 was also demonstrated.     

Murine coronavirus-induced oligodendrocyte apoptosis is mediated through the activation of the Fas signaling pathway

We previously showed that infection of rat oligodendrocytes by ultraviolet light-inactivated mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) resulted in apoptosis, suggesting that the apoptosis is triggered during cell entry. To further characterize the earliest apoptotic signaling events, here we treated cells with an antibody specific to the MHV receptor prior to and during virus infection or with an antibody specific to MHV spike protein following virus binding. Both treatments blocked virus infection and apoptosis, indicating that virus-receptor binding is necessary but not sufficient for the apoptosis induction. Furthermore, virus infection significantly increased the formation of the "death-receptor complexes" consisting of Fas, Fas-associated death domain and procaspase-8, but did not induce the complexes involving the tumor necrosis factor receptor and its associated death domain, demonstrating the specific activation of the Fas signaling pathway. Moreover, virus infection did not alter the abundance of the individual proteins of the complexes, suggesting that the activation of the Fas signaling pathway was at the post-translational level. Treatment with a Fas/Fc chimera, which blocks Fas-Fas ligand-mediated apoptosis, inhibited the formation of the complexes and blocked the activation of caspase-8 and apoptosis in MHV-infected cells. It also inhibited the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria and the activation of caspase-9. These results demonstrate that oligodendrocyte apoptosis is triggered by MHV infection during cell entry through the activation of the Fas signaling pathway.