Pesticide Use and Self-Reported Health Symptoms Among Rice Farmers in Zanzibar

The agrarian population in low- and middle-income countries suffers from a number of adverse health effects due to pesticide exposure. In Zanzibar, the government subsidizes pesticides to enhance local rice production. The objectives of this study were to assess Zanzibar smallholder rice farmers’ pesticide use and self-reported health symptoms in relation to pesticide exposure, training, and use of protective measures and to raise awareness for future local policy formulation. An exploratory cross-sectional interviewer-administered study was conducted among 99 rice farmers. Participants were selected based on convenience sampling and stratified by expected exposure category. The study participants reported using pesticides in World Health Organization (WHO) Class II. Of pesticide users, 61% reported one or more symptoms of possible acute pesticide poisoning. Only 50% of pesticide users had received training in safe handling and application of pesticides, but those who had displayed a higher use of protective measures. Farmers who did not use protective measures were more likely to have reported skin irritation and headache, which, together with eye irritation, were the most commonly reported acute symptoms. The main sociodemographic differences between the expected exposure categories of pesticide users and nonusers were in gender and education level. Scaling up of training in safe handling and application of pesticides is needed. Further studies are required to better understand the mechanisms behind the choice to use pesticides or not.     

Occupational exposure to pesticides and resultant health problems among cotton farmers of Punjab,Pakistan

Occupational exposure to pesticides and resultant health problems were assessed among 318 randomly selected cotton farmers from the two districts of Punjab, Pakistan. Heavy dependence of farmers on pesticides for pest control was reported. A large part (23.3?%) of the pesticides belonged to the category highly hazardous, whereas the largest part (54.7?%) belonged to the category moderately hazardous. Some of them (8?%) were reported to be used on vegetables. Common working practices of high exposure risk were: the confrontation of pesticide spills in the stage of spray solution preparation (76.4?%), the use of low-technology and faulty sprayers (67.9?%), and spraying under inappropriate weather (46.5?%). A large proportion (34?%) of the farmers reported multiple intoxication symptoms by pesticide use; the most common were irritation of skin and eyes, headache, and dizziness. Nevertheless, most farmers thought these symptoms were usual; only few reported visiting the doctor. Findings clearly indicated a high level of risk exposure to pesticides among farmers of the study area, calling upon immediate interventions toward increasing awareness about alternative pest control practices with less pesticide use.     

Risk factors to pesticide exposure and associated health symptoms among cut-flower farmers

The study looked into the risk factors associated with pesticide exposure among cut-flower farmers. A survey questionnaire was given to 102 respondents in Barangay Bahong in La Trinidad, the center of cut-flower production in the Philippines. Results showed that 32% were symptomatic or had experienced pesticide-related illnesses since their first use of pesticides. The majority of the pesticides used by the farmers were Categories Ib and II which are moderately or highly hazardous chemicals. Individuals with signs and symptoms most often centered on the eye, ear, nose and throat (EENT) (44 respondents reporting these symptoms) followed by general and neuralgic (16 respondents) and the integumentary (14 respondents). The most common general signs and symptoms manifested were weakness followed by fatigue and muscle pain then by chills and fever. The most common EENT manifestations were eye itchiness and blurring of vision. For neurological signs and symptoms, dizziness followed by headache was reported. Logistic regression showed that illnesses for the past 12 months were associated with certain risk factors such as farm use of pesticides, exposure to pesticide while applying it, respiratory inhalation of pesticide vapours and mists (p = 0.05). Moreover, those who re-entered a recently sprayed area were 20 times more likely to get ill during the past 12 months than those who did not. Those who used pesticide-contaminated pieces of fabric to wipe sweat off their faces were 2% more likely to get ill, and those who had spills on their bodies while applying pesticide were 26 times more likely to get ill. The study suggested that the risk factors to pesticide exposure should be considered in policy formulations for the cut-flower farmers in the country.     

Pesticide use and pesticide-related symptoms among black farmers in the Agricultural Health Study

BACKGROUND: Health effects of pesticides have not been well studied in black farmers. We describe agricultural practices and pesticide-related symptoms in North Carolina black and white farmers participating in the Agricultural Health Study. METHODS: Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 891 black and 11,909 white farmers licensed to apply restricted pesticides. Regression models were used to compare characteristics by race. RESULTS: Black farmers reported lower lifetime pesticide use, less use of each class of pesticides (e.g., herbicides, insecticides), less use of high exposure application methods, and fewer pesticide-related symptoms such as headaches or dizziness, skin irritation, chest discomfort and feeling nervous or depressed than did white farmers. CONCLUSIONS: Differences between black and white farmers may be explained by farm characteristics or economics. Despite lower use of pesticides, black farmers may have other work practices that affect exposure and risk.     

Occupational Exposure to Pesticides: Blood Cholinesterase Activity in a Farming Community in Ghana

A survey was undertaken to establish the extent of pesticide exposure in a farming community. Cholinesterase (ChE) activity in whole blood was used as a marker for assessing exposure to pesticides. Complete data were gathered for 63 farmers at Akumadan (exposed) and 58 control subjects at Tono, both prominent vegetable-farming communities in Ghana, by means of a questionnaire and blood cholinesterase analyses (acetylcholine assay). Although whole-blood ChE was significantly lower in the exposed than the control participants, it was not significantly correlated with either confounders of age, sex, body weight, and height or high-risks practices. The high-risks practices revealed during the survey included lack of use of personal protective clothing, short reentry intervals, and wrong direction of spraying of pesticides by hand or knapsack sprayer. About 97% of exposed participants had experienced symptoms attributable to pesticide exposure. The frequent symptoms were reported as weakness and headache. There is the need to review safety precautions in the use and application of pesticides in Ghana.     

Pesticides and respiratory symptoms among farmers

OBJECTIVE: Despite the intensive use of pesticides in agriculture there are few studies assessing the risk of respiratory conditions from this exposure. The study aimed at quantifying the prevalence of respiratory symptoms among farmers and evaluating its relationship with occupational use of pesticides and the prevalence of respiratory symptoms. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1,379 farmers from two municipalities of Southern Brazil in 1996. Frequency and type of chemical exposure and pesticide poisoning were recorded for both sexes. All subjects aged 15 years or older with at least 15 weekly hours of agricultural activity were interviewed. An adapted questionnaire developed by the American Thoracic Society was used for the assessment of respiratory symptoms. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was carried out. RESULTS: More than half (55%) of interviewees were male. The prevalence of asthma symptoms was 12% and chronic respiratory disease symptoms was 22%. Higher odds ratios for both asthma (OR=1.51; 95% CI: 1.07-2.14) and chronic respiratory disease (OR=1.34; 95% CI 1.00-1.81) symptoms were found in women. Logistic regression analysis identified associations between many forms of exposure to pesticides and increased respiratory symptoms. Occurrence of pesticide poisoning was associated with higher prevalence of asthma symptoms (OR=1.54; 95% CI: 1.04-2.58) and chronic respiratory disease symptoms (OR=1.57; 95% CI: 1.08-2.28). CONCLUSIONS: In spite of causality limitations, the study results provide evidence that farming exposure to pesticides is associated with higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms, especially when the exposure is above two days per month.     

Pesticide use and chronic bronchitis among farmers in the Agricultural Health Study

BACKGROUND: Farmers have increased risk for chronic bronchitis. Few investigators have considered pesticides. METHODS: We evaluated pesticides as risk factors for chronic bronchitis using the Agricultural Health Study enrollment data on lifetime pesticide use and history of doctor-diagnosed chronic bronchitis from 20,908 private pesticide applicators, primarily farmers. RESULTS: A total of 654 farmers (3%) reported chronic bronchitis diagnosed after age 19. After adjustment for correlated pesticides as well as confounders, 11 pesticides were significantly associated with chronic bronchitis. Heptachlor use had the highest odds ratio (OR=1.50, 95% Confidence Interval (CI)=1.19, 1.89). Increased prevalence for chronic bronchitis was also seen for individuals who had a history of a high pesticide exposure event (OR=1.85, 95% CI=1.51, 2.25) and for those who also applied pesticides in off-farm jobs (OR=1.40, 95% CI=1.04, 1.88). Co-morbid asthma and current farm activities did not explain these results. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide preliminary evidence that pesticide use may increase chronic bronchitis prevalence.     

Mental health in Alberta grain farmers using pesticides over many years

Background Exposure to organophosphates and certain other pesticides has been related to symptoms of mental ill-health. There is particular interest in whether exposure over many years may result in chronic ill-health. Aims To relate lifetime history of pesticide exposure to symptoms and medical records of mental ill-health in elderly grain farmers in Alberta. Methods Two populations of grain farmers were identified for study: cohort A (n = 5986), members of an Alberta farm organization in 1983; cohort B (n = 4781), grain farmers registered with the provincial department of agriculture. In 2002-03 both groups completed a questionnaire on lifetime history of pesticide use, physician diagnosed disease and recent neuropsychological symptoms. Durations of exposure to seven pesticide components were calculated and a factor score extracted from responses to the symptom questionnaire. For a sub-cohort surviving to 2009 medical records for mental ill-health were identified. Records and symptom scores were related to pesticide exposures allowing for confounding. Results From cohort A, 1348 and cohort B, 1078 were alive and interviewed (median age 63 years; median duration in farming 40 years): 1371 were linked to the medical records database. Mental ill-health symptom scores were related to duration of exposure to phenoxy compounds (but not to other pesticides) and to mental ill-health in medical records. Those with mental ill-health in hospital discharge records were more likely to have been exposed to phenoxy compounds for ≥35 years. Conclusions The relationship of long-term exposure to phenoxy herbicides and neuropsychiatric symptoms was unexpected but not explained by measured confounders.     

Exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides and health conditions in agricultural and non-agricultural workers from Maule,Chile

The objective was to evaluate the characteristics of exposure to OP pesticides and health status in Chilean farm workers from the Maule Region. An occupational health questionnaire was administered in 207 agricultural and non-agricultural workers. For the group of agricultural workers, we asked about specific occupational exposure history and symptoms of OP pesticide poisoning. The main health problem of the exposed group was previous OP pesticide poisoning (p < 0.001). Fifty-six percent of agricultural workers reported symptoms consistent with acute OP pesticide poisoning. The use of respiratory personal protective equipment and younger age were protective against these symptoms, and number of years of OP pesticide exposure was positively associated with reporting symptoms of poisoning. Of the pesticide applicators 47 % reported using chlorpyrifos. The regulations regarding use and application of pesticides should be strengthened, as should training and intervention with workers to improve the use of personal protective equipment.     

Acute Pesticide Poisoning among Female and Male Cotton Growers in India

Abstract

A season-long assessment of acute pesticide poisoning among farmers was conducted in three villages in India. Fifty female cotton growers reported the adverse effects experienced after exposures to pesticides by themselves and by their male relatives (n = 47). The study documented the serious consequences of pesticide use for the health of farmers, particularly women field helpers. Typically female tasks such as mixing on centrated chemicals and refilling spraying tanks were as hazardous as direct pesticide application. Of 323 reported events, 83.6% were associated with signs and symptoms of mild to severe poisoning, and 10% of the pesticide application sessions were associated with three or more neurotoxic/systemic signs and symptoms typical of poisoning by organophosphates, which were used in 47% of the applications. Although in 6% of the spray sessions the workers' neurotoxic effects were extremely serious, none sought medical care. Low-income marginal farmers were, more often subjected to severe poisoning than were landlords.     

Urinary and hand wipe pesticide levels among farmers and nonfarmers in Iowa

In the spring and summer of 2001, as part of a larger study investigating farm family pesticide exposure and home contamination in Iowa, urine and hand wipe samples were collected from 24 male farmers and 23 male nonfarmer controls. On two occasions approximately 1 month apart, one hand wipe sample and an evening and morning urine sample were collected from each participant. The samples were analyzed for the parent compound or metabolites of six commonly used agricultural pesticides: alachlor, atrazine, acetochlor, metolachlor, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and chlorpyrifos. For atrazine, acetochlor, metolachlor and 2,4-D, farmers who reported applying the pesticide had significantly higher urinary metabolite levels than nonfarmers, farmers who did not apply the pesticide, and farmers who had the pesticide commercially applied (P-value <0.05). Generally, there were no differences in urinary pesticide metabolite levels between nonfarmers, farmers who did not apply the pesticide, and farmers who had the pesticide commercially applied. Among farmers who reported applying 2,4-D themselves, time since application, amount of pesticide applied, and the number of acres to which the pesticide was applied were marginally associated with 2,4-D urine levels. Among farmers who reported applying atrazine themselves, time since application and farm size were marginally associated with atrazine mercapturate urine levels. Farmers who reported using a closed cab to apply these pesticides had higher urinary pesticide metabolite levels, although the difference was not statistically significant. Farmers who reported using closed cabs tended to use more pesticides. The majority of the hand wipe samples were nondetectable. However, detection of atrazine in the hand wipes was significantly associated with urinary levels of atrazine above the median (P-value <0.01).     

Acute pesticide poisoning among female and male cotton growers in India

A season-long assessment of acute pesticide poisoning among farmers was conducted in three villages in India. Fifty female cotton growers reported the adverse effects experienced after exposures to pesticides by themselves and by their male relatives (n=47). The study documented the serious consequences of pesticide use for the health of farmers, particularly women field helpers. Typically female tasks such as mixing concentrated chemicals and refilling spraying tanks were as hazardous as direct pesticide application. Of 323 reported events, 83.6% were associated with signs and symptoms of mild to severe poisoning, and 10% of the pesticide application sessions were associated with three or more neurotoxic/systemic signs and symptoms typical of poisoning by organophosphates, which were used in 47% of the applications. Although in 6% of the spray sessions the workers' neurotoxic effects were extremely serious, none sought medical care. Low-income marginal farmers were more often subjected to severe poisoning than were landlords.     

Neurological symptoms among Sri Lankan farmers occupationally exposed to acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides

BACKGROUND: In many agricultural districts in Sri Lanka, pesticide poisoning is a leading cause of death. This study aims to evaluate the impact of pesticide use on Sri Lankan farmers' health. METHODS: A total of 260 subjects were surveyed in both a low and a high exposure period. Acetylcholinesterase activity was measured and data on symptoms were collected with questionnaires. RESULTS: Twenty-four percent of surveyed farmers had suffered at least once from acute pesticide poisoning. Farmers showed significantly more inhibition of cholinesterase activity than controls. Acute symptoms indicative for exposure to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides were associated with farming and a higher degree of cholinesterase suppression (more than 13% inhibition). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) training seemed to result in less insecticide use, and less cholinesterase inhibition. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that occupational acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting insecticide exposures have a negative impact on Sri Lankan farmers' health. Overall reduction in pesticide use seems the best option to protect farmers from the adverse effects of pesticides.     

Use of pesticides and its impact on health of farmers in South India

The relationship between extent of pesticide use and signs and symptoms of illnesses due to exposure was assessed in a cross-sectional survey of 631 farmers (537 men and 94 women) in South India. Responses to questionnaires showed that 433 farmers (68.6%) sprayed pesticides themselves and were thus directly exposed. More than 75% used moderately or highly hazardous pesticides; 88% used no protection while handling pesticides. About 50% of sprayers mixed different brands. Retailers were the source of information about pesticides for 56%. The farmers reported excessive sweating (36.5%), burning/stinging/itching of eyes (35.7%), dry/sore throat (25.5%), and excessive salivation (14.1%), all more prevalent among sprayers. Among men, excessive sweating and eye and throat problems were significantly associated with exposure. There is a need to raise farmers' and authorities' awareness of the need to use protective gear when handling pesticides.     

Neurologic symptoms in licensed private pesticide applicators in the agricultural health study

Exposure to high levels of many pesticides has both acute and long-term neurologic consequences, but little is known about the neurotoxicity of chronic exposure to moderate levels of pesticides. We analyzed cross-sectional data from 18,782 white male licensed private pesticide applicators enrolled in the Agricultural Health Study in 1993-1997. Applicators provided information on lifetime pesticide use and 23 neurologic symptoms typically associated with pesticide intoxication. An indicator of more symptoms (> or = 10 vs. < 10) during the year before enrollment was associated with cumulative lifetime days of insecticide use: odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) were 1.64 (1.36-1.97) for 1-50 days, 1.89 (1.58-2.25) for 51-500 days, and 2.50 (2.00-3.13) for > 500 days, compared with never users. A modest association for fumigants [> 50 days, 1.50 (1.24-1.81)] and weaker relationships for herbicides [> 500 days, 1.32 (0.99-1.75)] and fungicides [> 50 days, 1.23 (1.00-1.50)] were observed. Pesticide use within the year before enrollment was not associated with symptom count. Only associations with insecticides and fumigants persisted when all four pesticide groups were examined simultaneously. Among chemical classes of insecticides, associations were strongest for organophosphates and organochlorines. Associations with cumulative exposure persisted after excluding individuals who had a history of pesticide poisoning or had experienced an event involving high personal pesticide exposure. These results suggest that self-reported neurologic symptoms are associated with cumulative exposure to moderate levels of fumigants and organophosphate and organochlorine insecticides, regardless of recent exposure or history of poisoning.     

Pesticide exposure, risk factors and health problems among cutflower farmers: a cross sectional study

This was a cross-sectional study which aimed to determine associations between hematologic indices such as red blood cell cholinesterase (RBC) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV), with illnesses related to pesticide exposure among cutflower farmers in La Trinidad, Benguet. One hundred two (102) randomly selected cutflower farmers underwent comprehensive, personal physical health and laboratory examinations and answered a questionnaire on work practices and illness. Majority were males (52%) and most belonged to the 20–35 age group (45%). Majority of exposed farmers were symptomatic, with most common complaints being headache (48%), easy fatigability (46.1%) and cough (40.2%). Analysis showed that RBC cholinesterase levels were positively associated with age (p = 0.02), and selling pesticide containers (p = 0.008). number of years of using pesticides (p = 0.022), use of contaminated cloth (p = 0.033), incorrect mixing of pesticides (p = 0.041), sex (p = 0.002) and illness due to pesticides (p = 0.005) were correlated with abnormal MCV. Significant associations were also found for hemoglobin, hematocrit, RBC, white blood cell (WBC) and platelet count. Predictors of RBC cholinesterase were years of pesticide use (p = 0.037) and abnormalities on health (p = 0.029). The findings of the study can be used for information dissemination and pesticide reduction programs for the cutflower farmers.     

Pesticide application practices in agricultural workers

OBJECTIVE: We describe the sociodemographic characteristics and determinants of pesticide exposure in agricultural workers applying pesticides. METHODS: The workers selected were included in a case-control study carried out in the Autonomous Community of Valencia in Spain. Contact was made by telephone and individuals who had been involved in agricultural work during the relevant period of exposure were interviewed face-to-face to gain information on the following determinants of pesticide exposure: crops and periods worked, mixing of products, treatment equipment, participation in the washing of equipment, use of personal protection during the treatments and knowledge of the risks of pesticide exposure. RESULTS: Eighty-nine workers, aged between 16 and 46 years old, were included. Most of the interviewees had primary education or less. Pesticide treatments were mostly applied on high crops (82%), with manual equipment (61%) and throughout the year (45%). Workers frequently performed tasks involving additional exposure to pesticides (mixing chemicals, 66%, or washing equipment, 60%). Sixty-five percent of the workers used no personal protection or used it defectively. No differences were found in personal protection use according to age, family income or education. Most of the workers (90%) reported knowledge of the health risks of pesticide exposure and 21% of them rated the risk as null. CONCLUSIONS: Workers involved in pesticide application use personal protection measures very defectively. There is a clear need to develop specific prevention programs for these workers. The determinants of pesticide exposure in agricultural workers described in this study should be properly assessed in epidemiological studies of the health effects of pesticides on agricultural workers.     

Acute pesticide poisoning among cut-flower farmers

The study reported here looked at adverse health effects associated with pesticide exposure among cut-flower farmers in La Trinidad, Philippines. Survey questionnaires and detailed physical and laboratory examinations were administered to 114 and 102 respondents, respectively, to determine pesticide exposure, work and safety practices, individual and family illnesses, and cholinesterase levels. Results showed that pesticide application was the activity most frequently associated with pesticide exposure, and entry was mostly ocular and dermal. Involvement of the skin was noted, with 21 percent of farmers having integumentary abnormalities. Upon physical examination, 90 respondents, or 88.2 percent of those examined, were found to have abnormal peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR). Abnormal temperature was found in 81.3 percent, and the next most frequent finding was abnormal general-survey results, at 75.5 percent. In 51 percent, cholinesterase levels were below the mean value of 0.7 delta pH/hour. (The unit of measure A pH/hour refers to the change in cholinesterase activity as measured by the difference between the initial pH and the final pH when acetylcholine solution has been added to the red blood cell for 1 1/2 hours. A decrease in cholinesterase activity will produce a low delta pH/hour level) In 25.5 percent, a more than 10 percent depression in the level of RBC cholinesterase was found. Certain hematological parameters were also abnormal, namely hemoglobin, hematocrit, and eosinophil count. Using Pearson's r, the author found that factors strongly associated with illness due to pesticides include use of a contaminated piece of fabric to wipe off sweat (p = .01) and reuse of pesticide containers to store water (p = .01), Recycling of containers poses great health hazards and risks of contamination, and the current recommendation is that used containers should be buried. There was a moderate relationship between illness and average number of years of pesticide use (p = .05), and between illness and re-entering a recently sprayed area (p = .05). Those with motor scale scores of < or = 15--normal values--were less likely to be sick. The greatest adverse effect in those exposed was an abnormal cholinesterase level, a finding that confirms results from earlier studies on the effect of pesticides on the body.     

Knowledge,attitudes and practices (KAP) among agricultural extension workers concerning the reduction of the adverse impact of pesticides in agricultural areas in Tanzania

BACKGROUND: Extension workers are educated locally to enable them to train farmers in using improved local farming methods and imported technology, such as pesticides, to increase crop production. However, the extension workers are not adequately trained in health aspects of pesticides and hence are unable to provide adequate services to farmers with regard to safe use of pesticides. OBJECTIVE: The present study assessed the knowledge, attitudes and practices of agricultural extension workers with respect to health effects of pesticides in order to develop strategies for the control of pesticide exposure and prevention of pesticide poisoning in Tanzania. METHODS: A survey of Tanzanian agricultural extensionists was undertaken in 1991-1994 using a standardized questionnaire in face-to-face interviews. Extensionists who were district agricultural officers, assistant agricultural officers, agricultural assistants, and field assistants, working in the coffee and cotton growing areas (N = 61) within a radius of 15 km of farm, estate or village under farm worker study (reported elsewhere) were included in the survey. RESULTS: The majority of extensionists knew that pesticides could enter the human body but only a quarter perceived pesticides as a major problem in the community they served. The majority showed awareness of potential health hazards of the different pesticides used in their service areas, but they did not recognize what pesticides were responsible for poisoning. A high proportion was familiar with first aid procedures in case of pesticide poisoning; however, many procedures described were not appropriate for pesticide poisoning. CONCLUSIONS: The survey indicated that training of agricultural workers in health aspects of pesticide exposure is an important task for adequate provision of service to farmers with regard to safe use of pesticides in Tanzania. Nevertheless, the appropriate role of extensionists in reducing the health impact of pesticides would be to advocate pesticides of low toxicity or non-chemical pest control.     

Agricultural exposure to carbamate pesticides and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Recent epidemiological studies have suggested an increased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) from carbamate insecticide use among farmers. To further explore the possible relationships, we conducted a pooled analysis of three population-based case-control studies conducted in four midwestern states in the United States. A total of 985 white male subjects and 2895 control subjects were included in this analysis. Unconditional logistic regression was used to estimate the association and control for confounding. Compared with nonfarmers, farmers who had ever used carbamate pesticides had a 30% to 50% increased risk of NHL, whereas farmers without carbamate pesticide use showed no increased risk. Analyses for individual carbamate pesticides found a more consistent association with Sevin but not carbofuran, butylate, or S-ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate plus protectant. Among farmers using Sevin, the risk of NHL was limited to those who personally handled the product, those who first used the product for > or = 20 years before their disease diagnosis, and those who used the product for a longer period. These associations persisted after adjusting for other major classes of pesticides. These results suggest an increased risk of NHL associated with carbamate pesticide use, particularly Sevin. Further investigation of the association is warranted.