Comparison of the effects of body-weight-supported treadmill training and tilt-table standing on spasticity in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury

Abstract

Objective

Determine the effects of body-weight-supported treadmill training (BWSTT) and tilt-table standing (TTS) on clinically assessed and self-reported spasticity, motor neuron excitability, and related constructs in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury (SCI).

Design

Random cross-over.

Methods

Seven individuals with chronic SCI and spasticity performed thrice-weekly BWSTT for 4 weeks and thrice-weekly TTS for 4 weeks, separated by a 4-week wash-out. Clinical (Modified Ashworth Scale, Spinal Cord Assessment Tool for Spinal reflexes) and self-report (Spinal Cord Injury Spasticity Evaluation Tool, Penn Spasm Frequency Scale) assessments of spasticity, quality of life (Quality of Life Index Spinal Cord Injury Version – III), functional mobility (FIM Motor Subscale), plus soleus H-reflex were measured at baseline, after the first training session and within 2 days of completing each training condition.

Results

In comparison with TTS, a single session of BWSTT had greater beneficial effects for muscle tone (effect size (ES) = 0.69), flexor spasms (ES = 0.57), and the H/M ratio (ES = 0.50). Similarly, flexor spasms (ES = 0.79), clonus (ES = 0.66), and self-reported mobility (ES = 1.27) tended to benefit more from 4 weeks of BWSTT than of TTS. Participation in BWSTT also appeared to be favorable for quality of life (ES = 0.50). In contrast, extensor spasms were reduced to a greater degree with TTS (ES = 0.68 for single session; ES = 1.32 after 4 weeks).

Conclusion

While both BWSTT and TTS may provide specific benefits with respect to spasticity characteristics, data from this pilot study suggest that BWSTT may result in a broader range of positive outcomes.     

Modification of spasticity by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation in individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury

Context/objective

To examine the effects of transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation (tSCS) on lower-limb spasticity.

Design

Interventional pilot study to produce preliminary data.

Setting

Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Wilhelminenspital, Vienna, Austria.

Participants

Three subjects with chronic motor-incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI) who could walk ≥10 m.

Interventions

Two interconnected stimulating skin electrodes (Ø 5 cm) were placed paraspinally at the T11/T12 vertebral levels, and two rectangular electrodes (8 × 13 cm) on the abdomen for the reference. Biphasic 2 ms-width pulses were delivered at 50 Hz for 30 minutes at intensities producing paraesthesias but no motor responses in the lower limbs.

Outcome measures

The Wartenberg pendulum test and neurological recordings of surface-electromyography (EMG) were used to assess effects on exaggerated reflex excitability. Non-functional co-activation during volitional movement was evaluated. The timed 10-m walk test provided measures of clinical function.

Results

The index of spasticity derived from the pendulum test changed from 0.8 ± 0.4 pre- to 0.9 ± 0.3 post-stimulation, with an improvement in the subject with the lowest pre-stimulation index. Exaggerated reflex responsiveness was decreased after tSCS across all subjects, with the most profound effect on passive lower-limb movement (pre- to post-tSCS EMG ratio: 0.2 ± 0.1), as was non-functional co-activation during voluntary movement. Gait speed values increased in two subjects by 39%.

Conclusion

These preliminary results suggest that tSCS, similar to epidurally delivered stimulation, may be used for spasticity control, without negatively impacting residual motor control in incomplete SCI. Further study in a larger population is warranted.     

Impact of spasticity on transfers and activities of daily living in individuals with spinal cord injury

Context/Objective: For persons with spinal cord injury, spasticity commonly interferes with activities of daily living such as transfers. Electromyography can be used to objectively measure muscle spasms during transfers, but how electromyographic measures relate to the impact spasticity has on life, or to clinically-rated spasticity, is unclear. We aimed to characterize relationships among spasm duration and magnitude, impact of spasticity on daily life, and a clinical measure of extensor spasticity, as well as to determine reliability of the electromyographic measures.

Design: Participants (N=19) underwent electromyographic measurements of involuntary muscle activity (spasm duration and magnitude) evoked in quadriceps muscles during transfers on two days. Impact of spasticity on daily life was measured with the Spinal Cord Injury Spasticity Evaluation Tool. Clinically-rated spasticity severity was measured with the Spinal Cord Assessment Tool for Spastic reflexes.

Results: No significant associations were found between impact of spasticity and spasm duration, spasm magnitude, or clinical extensor spasticity score. Absolute and normalized spasm duration were positively associated with clinical extensor spasticity score (rho=0.510-0.667, P?<?0.05). Spasm measures during transfers had good to excellent day-to-day reliability (rho=0.656-0.846, P?<?0.05).

Conclusions: Electromyographic and clinical measures of involuntary activity in the lower extremity do not significantly relate to perceived impact of spasticity on daily life. However, quadriceps spasm duration during transfers is related to clinically-rated extensor spasticity. Electromyography is a reliable method of quantifying quadriceps spasms during transfers. Future investigations should identify factors that influence the impact of spasticity on life, which may help direct treatment strategies to reduce problematic impact.     

Examining the effectiveness of intrathecal baclofen on spasticity in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury: A systematic review

Objective

To review the available evidence on the effectiveness of intrathecal baclofen in the treatment of spasticity in individuals with spinal cord injuries (SCIs) at least 6 months post-injury or diagnosis.

Data sources

A literature search of multiple databases (Pub Med, CINAHL, EMBASE) was conducted to identify articles published in the English language.

Study selection

Studies were included for review if: (1) more than 50% of the sample size had suffered a traumatic or non-traumatic SCI; (2) there were more than three subjects; (3) subjects received continuous intrathecal baclofen via an implantable pump aimed at improving spasticity; and (4) all subjects were ≥6 months post-SCI, at the time of the intervention.

Data extraction

Data extracted from the studies included patient and treatment characteristics, study design, method of assessment, and outcomes of the intervention.

Data synthesis

Methodological quality was assessed using the PEDro for randomized-controlled trials (RCTs) and the Downs and Black (D&B) tool for non-RCTs. A level of evidence was assigned to each intervention using a modified Sackett scale.

Conclusion

The literature search resulted in 677 articles. No RCTs and eight non-RCTs (D&B scores 13–24) met criteria for inclusion, providing a pooled sample size of 162 individuals. There was substantial level 4 evidence that intrathecal baclofen is effective in reducing spasticity. Mean Ashworth scores reduced from 3.1–4.5 at baseline to 1.0–2.0 (P < 0.005) at follow-up (range 2–41 months). Average dosing increased from 57–187 µg/day at baseline to 218.7–535.9 µg/day at follow-up. Several complications from the use of intrathecal baclofen or pump and catheter malfunction were reported.     

Low-frequency fatigue in individuals with spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: This study examined magnitude and recovery of low-frequency fatigue (LFF) in the quadriceps after electrically stimulated contractions in spinal cord-injured (SCI) and able-bodied subjects. SUBJECTS: Nine SCI (ASIA A-C, levels C5-T9, injured 13.6 +/- 12.2 years) and 9 sedentary able-bodied subjects completed this study. METHODS: Fatigue was evoked in 1 thigh, and the nonfatigued leg served as a control. The fatigue test for able-bodied subjects lasted 15 minutes. For SCI, stimulation was adjusted so that the relative drop in force was matched to the able-bodied group. Force was assessed at 20 (P20) and 100 Hz (P100), and the ratio of P20/P100 was used to evaluate LFF in thighs immediately after, at 10, 20, and 60 minutes, and at 2, 4, 6, and 24 hours after a fatigue test. RESULTS: The magnitude of LFF (up to 1 hour after fatigue) was not different between able-bodied and patients with SCI. However, recovery of LFF over 24 hours was greater in able-bodied compared with patients with SCI in both the experimental (P < 0.001) and control legs (P < 0.001). The able-bodied group showed a gradual recovery of LFF over time in the experimental leg, whereas the SCI group did not. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that individuals with SCI are more susceptible to LFF than able-bodied subjects. In SCI, simply assessing LFF produced considerable LFF and accounted for a substantial portion of the response. We propose that muscle injury is causing the dramatic LFF in SCI, and future studies are needed to test whether "fatigue" in SCI is actually confounded by the effects of muscle injury.     

Lower extremity functional electrical stimulation cycling promotes physical and functional recovery in chronic spinal cord injury

Abstract

Objective

To examine the effect of long-term lower extremity functional electrical stimulation (FES) cycling on the physical integrity and functional recovery in people with chronic spinal cord injury (SCI).

Design

Retrospective cohort, mean follow-up 29.1 months, and cross-sectional evaluation.

Setting

Washington University Spinal Cord Injury Neurorehabilitation Center, referral center.

Participants

Twenty-five people with chronic SCI who received FES during cycling were matched by age, gender, injury level, and severity, and duration of injury to 20 people with SCI who received range of motion and stretching.

Intervention

Lower extremity FES during cycling as part of an activity-based restorative treatment regimen.

Main outcome measure

Change in neurological function: motor, sensory, and combined motor–sensory scores (CMSS) assessed by the American Spinal Injury Association Impairment scale. Response was defined as ≥1 point improvement.

Results

FES was associated with an 80% CMSS responder rate compared to 40% in controls. An average 9.6 CMSS point loss among controls was offset by an average 20-point gain among FES subjects. Quadriceps muscle mass was on average 36% higher and intra/inter-muscular fat 44% lower, in the FES group. Hamstring and quadriceps muscle strength was 30 and 35% greater, respectively, in the FES group. Quality of life and daily function measures were significantly higher in FES group.

Conclusion

FES during cycling in chronic SCI may provide substantial physical integrity benefits, including enhanced neurological and functional performance, increased muscle size and force-generation potential, reduced spasticity, and improved quality of life.     

Changes in spasticity following functional electrical stimulation cycling in patients with spinal cord injury: A systematic review

Context: Spasticity is one of the most common secondary impairment after spinal cord injury (SCI). It can lead to an increase in the level of disability. The functional electrical stimulation cycling (FES-cycling) promotes recovery in patients with SCI. No systematic review has been published examining the influence of FES-cycling on the spasticity of lower extremities post-SCI.Objective: This review aimed to investigate the effects of the FES-cycling on the lower extremities spasticity in patients with SCI.Methods: PubMed, Scopus, PEDro, REHABDATA, Web of Science, and MEDLINE were searched until December 2019. The methodological quality was assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale.Results: Ten studies were met the inclusion criteria. Two were randomized clinical trials, cohort study (n = 2), and pilot study (n=6). The scores on the PEDro scale ranged from one to nine, with a median score of three. The results showed evidence for the beneficial effects of FES-cycling on the spasticity of lower extremities in individuals with SCI.Conclusion: The FES-cycling intervention may reduce the lower extremities spasticity in patients with various injury levels of SCI. It is not a suitable intervention for medically unstable patients or with contraindication for lower extremities movement. Further randomized controlled trials with a large sample size strongly warranted to confirm our findings.     

Robotically assisted treadmill exercise training for improving peak fitness in chronic motor incomplete spinal cord injury: A randomized controlled trial

Objective

To assess the effectiveness of robotically assisted body weight supported treadmill training (RABWSTT) for improving cardiovascular fitness in chronic motor incomplete spinal cord injury (CMISCI).

Design

Pilot prospective randomized, controlled clinical trial.

Setting

Outpatient rehabilitation specialty hospital.

Participants

Eighteen individuals with CMISCI with American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) level between C4 and L2 and at least one-year post injury.

Interventions

CMISCI participants were randomized to RABWSTT or a home stretching program (HSP) three times per week for three months. Those in the home stretching group were crossed over to three months of RABWSTT following completion of the initial three month phase.

Outcome measures

Peak oxygen consumption (peak VO₂) was measured during both robotic treadmill walking and arm cycle ergometry: twice at baseline, once at six weeks (mid-training) and twice at three months (post-training). Peak VO₂ values were normalized for body mass.

Results

The RABWSTT group improved peak VO₂ by 12.3% during robotic treadmill walking (20.2 ± 7.4 to 22.7 ± 7.5 ml/kg/min, P = 0.018), compared to a non-significant 3.9% within group change observed in HSP controls (P = 0.37). Neither group displayed a significant change in peak VO₂ during arm cycle ergometry (RABWSTT, 8.5% (P = 0.25); HSP, 1.76% (P = 0.72)). A repeated measures analysis showed statistically significant differences between treatments for peak VO₂ during both robotic treadmill walking (P = 0.002) and arm cycle ergometry (P = 0.001).

Conclusion

RABWSTT is an effective intervention model for improving peak fitness levels assessed during robotic treadmill walking in persons with CMISCI.     

经颅磁刺激同步踏车训练在胸腰段脊髓损伤治疗中的应用

目的:探讨经颅磁刺激同步踏车训练对胸腰段脊髓损伤患者功能恢复的影响。方法:30例不完全性T10～T12脊髓损伤患者,ASIA脊髓神经功能分级均为C级,病程3～4个月,随机分为训练组和对照组。两组均接受常规康复治疗(包括物理治疗、作业治疗、理疗和梯度气压助动等),训练组比对照组仅增加经颅磁刺激同步踏车训练1个项目。治疗时间6周,比较两组治疗前后ASIA运动评分、ASIA感觉评分、脊髓损伤步行指数Ⅱ(WISCIⅡ)和功能独立性评定(FIM)情况。结果:两组患者治疗前各临床评价指标间比较均无显著性差异(P0.05)。治疗6周后,训练组ASIA运动评分、WISCIⅡ、FIM评分较治疗前均有提高,差异有显著性(P0.05);对照组FIM评分较治疗前提高,差异有显著性(P0.05),余评价指标与治疗前比较差异无显著性(P0.05)。治疗后两组间比较,经颅磁刺激同步踏车训练组ASIA运动评分、WISCIⅡ均高于对照组,差异有显著性(P0.05),ASIA感觉评分、FIM评分两组间差异无显著性(P0.05)。结论:经颅磁刺激同步踏车训练对不完全性胸腰段脊髓损伤患者运动功能恢复有一定程度的促进作用。     

Physical activity and quality of life in adults with spinal cord injury

Background/Objective:

To document the relationship between level of physical activity and quality of life in persons with spinal cord injury.

Design:

Cross-sectional investigation.

Participants/Methods:

Men (n = 32) and women (n = 30) with complete and incomplete spinal cord lesions below C6 volunteered to participate in this study. The average length of time since the onset of disability was 9 years (range, 1.5–40 years). Using an interview-formatted survey (Quality of Well-Being Scale), a measure of quality of life was obtained for each participant. Physical activity levels were determined using the Physical Activity Scale for Individuals with Physical Disabilities.

Results:

A strong positive association (r = 0.75; P < 0.05) was observed between level of physical activity and quality of life. Multiple regression analysis also showed that when level of physical activity, anatomical location of the injury, completeness of injury, and time since injury were used as explanatory variables, level of physical activity was the only significant predictor of quality of life, accounting for 56% of the total variation in quality of life.

Conclusions:

Results from this study show that a significant and moderately strong positive relationship exists between level of physical activity and quality of life in adults with spinal cord injury. From a clinical perspective, these findings suggest that interventions aimed at promoting physical activity may be effective in improving quality of life in this population.     

Comparison of nutritional intake between individuals with acute and chronic spinal cord injury

Objective

To compare the nutritional intake of patients with acute and chronic spinal cord injury (SCI).

Design

Cross-sectional, observational study.

Setting

Spinal cord unit.

Methods

Twelve in-house patients of a spinal cord unit with acute SCI and paralysis duration of 5.3 ± 2.5 months (acute group) were compared with 12 subjects with chronic SCI (chronic group) with lesion duration of 55.5 ± 21.0 months. All subjects recorded their nutritional intake for 7 days, which was analyzed for intake of energy, proteins, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, mineral nutrients, fluid, and dietary fiber. Resting energy expenditure (REE) and total body fat were also determined.

Results

The chronic group showed a significantly higher total body fat content compared to the acute group (19.4 ± 3.8 vs. 15.7 ± 4.3%). All other parameters were not significantly different between groups. Both groups ingested excessive fat and insufficient amounts of carbohydrates compared with common nutritional recommendations. Low intakes of vitamins C, D, E, biotin, folic acid, as well as potassium and iron were found.

Conclusions

No differences were found in the nutritional intakes of two comparable groups of subjects with acute and chronic SCI. Independent of lesion duration, subjects with SCI showed considerable deviations from the general accepted nutritional recommendations concerning macro- and micronutrients intake. Professional nutritional education for persons with SCI should start as soon as possible after injury to prevent nutrition-related secondary complications like cardiovascular diseases. Periodic determinations of body fat content and REE combined with a physical activity program might be helpful as well.     

Comparison of nutritional intake between individuals with acute and chronic spinal cord injury

Abstract

Objective

To compare the nutritional intake of patients with acute and chronic spinal cord injury (SCI).

Design

Cross-sectional, observational study.

Setting

Spinal cord unit.

Methods

Twelve in-house patients of a spinal cord unit with acute SCI and paralysis duration of 5.3 ± 2.5 months (acute group) were compared with 12 subjects with chronic SCI (chronic group) with lesion duration of 55.5 ± 21.0 months. All subjects recorded their nutritional intake for 7 days, which was analyzed for intake of energy, proteins, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, mineral nutrients, fluid, and dietary fiber. Resting energy expenditure (REE) and total body fat were also determined.

Results

The chronic group showed a significantly higher total body fat content compared to the acute group (19.4 ± 3.8 vs. 15.7 ± 4.3%). All other parameters were not significantly different between groups. Both groups ingested excessive fat and insufficient amounts of carbohydrates compared with common nutritional recommendations. Low intakes of vitamins C, D, E, biotin, folic acid, as well as potassium and iron were found.

Conclusions

No differences were found in the nutritional intakes of two comparable groups of subjects with acute and chronic SCI. Independent of lesion duration, subjects with SCI showed considerable deviations from the general accepted nutritional recommendations concerning macro- and micronutrients intake. Professional nutritional education for persons with SCI should start as soon as possible after injury to prevent nutrition-related secondary complications like cardiovascular diseases. Periodic determinations of body fat content and REE combined with a physical activity program might be helpful as well.     

嗅鞘细胞移植联合跑步训练对改善脊髓损伤大鼠后肢运动功能的研究

目的 :研究嗅鞘细胞移植联合跑步训练对改善脊髓损伤大鼠后肢运动功能的效果,同时探索嗅鞘细胞移植联合跑步训练改善大鼠运动功能的可能机制。方法:选用雄性SD大鼠80只,随机分为4组,每组20只,均进行脊髓损伤造模后进行如下分组处理:生理盐水注射组(A组)、嗅鞘细胞移植组(B组)、生理盐水注射联合跑步训练组(C组)和嗅鞘细胞移植联合跑步训练组(D组)。建模3 d后C、D两组进行跑步训练,1周后B、D两组进行嗅鞘细胞移植(每只大鼠注射总量为4μl,细胞浓度为1.0×106/μl),A、C两组给予相应剂量盐水。观察时间为4周,每组每周测量BBB评分,利用免疫组化染色观察Bax、Bcl-2及NF-200的表达,采用Mallory磷钨酸苏木素染色观察神经纤维数量,使用TUNEL染色观察神经元凋亡。结果:(1)BBB评分:嗅鞘细胞联合跑步训练组与其他3组在第4周差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。(2)在Bcl-2蛋白表达上,嗅鞘细胞移植联合跑步训练有交互作用,两者相互促进(P0.05);在Bax蛋白的表达上,嗅鞘细胞移植可以明显降低其表达,与跑步训练交互作用不明显(P0.05);TUNEL染色显示,嗅鞘细胞移植、跑步训练与时间因素三者具有交互作用,显著抑制细胞凋亡(P0.05)。(3)在Mallory磷钨酸苏木素染色及NF-200免疫组化染色上,嗅鞘细胞移植、跑步训练与时间因素三者具有交互作用(P0.05),促进神经再生。结论 :嗅鞘细胞移植联合跑步训练能够显著改善大鼠后肢运动功能,这可能通过以下途径实现:嗅鞘细胞移植与跑步训练能够相互协同,明显上调Bcl-2基因的表达,从而显著抑制神经元凋亡;同时能明显促进神经元轴索再生,提高神经纤维数量,并且这种效果可以随时间的延长更加显著。     

Adverse events in cardiovascular-related training programs in people with spinal cord injury: A systematic review

Context

There are anecdotal reports of adverse events (AEs) associated with exercise in people with spinal cord injury (SCI) and consequent concern by people with SCI and their providers about potential risks of exercise. Enumeration of specific events has never been performed and the extent of risk of exercise to people with SCI is not understood.

Objective

To systematically review published evidence to identify and enumerate reports of adverse events or AEs associated with training in persons with SCI.

Methods

Review was limited to peer-reviewed studies published in English from 1970 to 2011: (1) in adults with SCI, (2) evaluating training protocols consisting of repeated sessions over at least 4 weeks to maintain or improve cardiovascular health, (3) including volitional exercise modalities and functional electrical stimulation (FES)-enhanced exercise modalities, and (4) including a specific statement about AEs. Trained reviewers initially identified a total of 145 studies. After further screening, 38 studies were included in the review. Quality of evidence was evaluated using established procedures.

Results

There were no serious AEs reported. There were no common AEs reported across most types of interventions, except for musculoskeletal AEs related to FES walking. There were few AEs in volitional exercise studies.

Conclusion

There is no evidence to suggest that cardiovascular exercise done according to guidelines and established safety precautions is harmful. To improve the strength of these conclusions, future publications should include definition of AEs, information about pre-intervention screening, and statements of the nature and extent of AEs.     

The association between bladder-emptying methods and health-related quality of life among Iranian individuals with spinal cord injury

Objectives: In this study, we compared the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) using different bladder emptying methods including normal spontaneous micturition (NSM), micturition with assisted maneuvers (MAM), aseptic intermittent catheterization by patient (IC-P), aseptic IC by an attendant/caregiver (IC-A) and indwelling catheterization.

Design: Cross-sectional.

Setting: Tertiary rehabilitation center.

Participants: Patients referred to Brain and Spinal Cord Injury Research Center between 2012 and 2014.

Outcome measures: HRQoL was assessed by Short Form Health Survey (SF-36). Hierarchical regression analysis with adjustment for probable confounders (demographic and injury-related variables) was performed to assess the relationship between bladder-emptying method and total SF-36 score.

Results: Patients with injury at cervical sections had significantly lower scores in domain of physical functioning (PF), physical component summary (PCS) and total score (P: 0.001, <0.0001 and 0.027, respectively). Longer time since injury was associated with better scores of PCS, Mental component summary (MCS) and total score (P: 0.002, <0.0001 and 0.003, respectively). Regression analysis showed that the effect of bladder-emptying method on total score of SF-36 was significant (P < 0.0001) and this relationship remained significant after adjustment for probable confounders in the second step of hierarchical regression analysis (R: 0.923, R²: 0.852, Adjusted R²: 0.847, P?<?0.0001). Patients with NSM had the highest scores in SF-36 instrument and individuals with indwelling catheterization had the poorest HRQoL in all domains.

Conclusion: This study shows that the type of bladder management method affects HRQoL significantly in patients with SCI. Intermittent catheterization are recommended to be administered instead of indwelling catheterization to improve HRQoL.     

Effects of walking training on risk markers of cardiovascular disease in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury

ObjectiveTo investigate the effects of an 8-week walking training program on glycemic control, lipid profile, and inflammatory markers in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury (SCI).DesignA pilot, single-group, pretest-posttest study.SettingA neuromuscular research laboratory.ParticipantsEleven participants with chronic SCI.InterventionAn 8-week walking training program using a treadmill, a body weight-supported system, and an assistive gait training device.Outcome MeasuresLevels of glycated hemoglobin (HbA_1c), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), C-reactive protein (CRP), and interleukin-6 were assessed before and after the walking training.ResultsFollowing the walking training, there was a statistically significant decrease in HbA_1c level (P<0.01) of uncertain clinical significance. The lipid profile improved after training, as shown by a statistically and clinically significant increase in HDL-C level (P<0.01) and a statistically significant decrease in LDL-C level (P<0.1) of no clinical significance. The ratio of LDL-C to HDL-C was significantly reduced (P<0.01). In regard to inflammatory markers, concentrations of IL-6 showed a significant reduction after training (P=0.05) of unknown clinical significance, while those of CRP trended to decrease (P=0.13).ConclusionThe findings of this pilot study suggest that an 8-week walking training program may produce favorable changes in risk markers of cardiovascular disease in individuals with chronic SCI as shown by clinically meaningful improvements in HDL-C, and small changes in the right direction, but uncertain clinical significance, in HbA1c, LDL-C and IL-6. A randomized controlled trial is needed to compare the effects of walking training on these outcome measures with those of other exercise modalities suitable for this population, and to see if more prolonged exercise exposure leads to favorable parameters of significant size to justify the exercise modality.