基于社区水平的珠海市大人群地中海贫血的遗传筛查和产前诊断

目的 阐述在广东省珠海市开展基于社区的控制重型α和β地中海贫血(简称地贫)的预防模式.方法 构建由6家医院组成的二级地贫遗传服务网络,以珠海市婚前医学或产前检查人群作为筛查对象,采用常规杂合子筛查策略,以标准的血液学分析流程进行α和β地贫特征的筛查.对所有地贫疑诊对象进行随访和遗传咨询,并采用基于PCR的分子诊断技术对高风险夫妇进行确诊.在知情同意和选择的情况下,对高风险妊娠实施产前基因诊断并通过选择性引产淘汰受累的重型地贫胎儿.结果 从1998年1月至2005年12月,共筛查了85522例拟婚育龄青年和10439例孕妇,婚检地贫筛查覆盖率达到71.38%.在6563例地贫筛查阳性的病例中,α和β地贫分别为4312例(4.5%)和2251例(2.3%);总计发现148对有生育重型地贫儿可能的高风险夫妇(α地贫103对,β地贫45对),其中有142对(95.9%)高风险夫妇进行了产前诊断(α地贫98例,β地贫44例).本项目启动后共减少了41例重型地贫患儿的出生,其中包括Hb Barts水肿胎23例、Hb H病4例和重型β-地贫14例.结论 这是我国首次基于社区水平的、在拥有129万人口的珠海市实施的前瞻性α和β地贫预防监控计划.这一预防模式对我国其他地贫高发区和其他发展中国家开展地贫和其他血红蛋白病的预防有着重要的借鉴意义.     

Prevalence of thalassemia in patients with microcytosis referred for hemoglobinopathy investigation in Ontario: a prospective cohort study

In Ontario, Canada, beta-thalassemia is easily detected through measurement of hemoglobin A2, but most laboratories do not do exhaustive DNA investigations for alpha-thalassemia. Therefore, the prevalence of thalassemia in microcytic samples for hemoglobinopathy investigation in Ontario is unknown. To address this, we performed a prospective cohort study in which samples referred for hemoglobinopathy investigation were also evaluated for alpha-thalassemia by DNA testing. Of 800 samples submitted, 664 were evaluable. Of the 664 patients represented, 163 (24.5%) were beta-thalassemia major carriers, 68 (10.2%) were hemoglobin Bart's hydrops fetalis carriers and, in total, 361 (54.4%) had some form of thalassemia. We conclude that microcytosis due to thalassemia is common in Ontario and that major forms of thalassemia, including forms predisposing to hemoglobin Bart's hydrops fetalis and beta-thalassemia major, are frequent. This illustrates the importance of adequate prenatal and laboratory investigation for these abnormalities in Ontario and other similar multiethnic jurisdictions worldwide.     

应用全基因组扩增技术对β-地中海贫血进行胚胎植入前遗传学诊断

目的 探讨对β-地中海贫血进行胚胎植入前遗传学诊断的方法。方法 夫妇双方分别为β41-42(-TCTT)及IVS-I 654(C→T)突变杂合子，在本中心进行体外受精-胚胎移植和胚胎植入前遗传学诊断。结果 13个胚胎中共有11个胚胎经PCR分析后获得明确诊断，正常胚胎2个(18．1％)；杂合子胚胎6个(54．5％)；双重杂合子胚胎3个(27．3％)。共移植3个胚胎，其中2个正常胚胎、1个杂合子胚胎。在胚胎移植后5周B超示三胎妊娠，孕8周自然减一胎，并于孕20周时经产前诊断，证实均为健康胎儿。现已分娩双胎分别为正常和杂合子。结论 成功应用全基因组扩增技术对β-地中海贫血进行胚胎植入前遗传学诊断，并分娩健康双胎。     

Reproductive genetic carrier screening for cystic fibrosis,fragile X syndrome,and spinal muscular atrophy in Australia: outcomes of 12,000 tests

PurposeTo describe our experience of offering simultaneous genetic carrier screening for cystic fibrosis (CF), fragile X syndrome (FXS), and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).MethodsCarrier screening is offered through general practice, obstetrics, fertility, and genetics settings before or in early pregnancy. Carriers are offered genetic counseling with prenatal/preimplantation genetic diagnosis available to those at increased risk.ResultsScreening of 12,000 individuals revealed 610 carriers (5.08%; 1 in 20): 342 CF, 35 FXS, 241 SMA (8 carriers of 2 conditions), approximately 88% of whom had no family history. At least 94% of CF and SMA carriers’ partners were tested. Fifty couples (0.42%; 1 in 240) were at increased risk of having a child with one of the conditions (14 CF, 35 FXS, and 1 SMA) with 32 pregnant at the time of testing. Of these, 26 opted for prenatal diagnosis revealing 7 pregnancies affected (4 CF, 2 FXS, 1 SMA).ConclusionThe combined affected pregnancy rate is comparable to the population risk for Down syndrome, emphasizing the need to routinely offer carrier screening. The availability of appropriate genetic counseling support and a collaborative approach between laboratory teams, genetics services, health professionals offering screening, and support organizations is essential.     

Control of homozygous β-thalassemia by carrier screening and antenatal diagnosis in Sardinians

This paper reports the present results of an ongoing program aimed at preventing homozygous beta-thalassemia by means of heterozygote screening and antenatal diagnosis in the Sardinian population. Screening based on the knowledge of carrier frequency and types of thalassemia prevalent in this population was designed to discover all heterozygotes except the few silent beta-thalassemia carriers. Most of the couples at risk were informed and accepted testing. Information was conveyed by mass media, midwives and marriage registry offices. Antenatal diagnosis was accepted by the majority of the couples counselled. The results of antenatal testing were very accurate. There was only one misdiagnosis out of 949 pregnancies tested. This risk of fetal loss was 7.5%. The program was highly effective, as shown by the decline of the incidence of the homozygous state from 1:205 live births in 1976 to 1:557 in 1981.     

Identification of deletion and triple alpha-globin gene haplotypes in the Montreal beta-thalassemia screening program: implications for genetic medicine

We obtained blood samples in a screening program designed to detect beta-thalassemia heterozygotes in Montreal; additional samples were obtained from referred persons. We analyzed DNA for variant numbers of alpha-globin genes, notably the alpha-thalassemia2 (-alpha/), alpha-thalassemia1, (- -/), and triplicated alpha-globin gene (alpha alpha alpha/) haplotypes using restriction enzymes and probes for alpha-globin and zeta-globin gene sequences. We estimated the numbers of Montreal residents of Italian and Greek ethnic origin with -alpha/alpha alpha genotype. Thus, 4.3% of Italians and 1.5% of Greeks, or about 7,500 persons, are estimated to be alpha-thalassemia2, trait (silent carriers), largely (80%) in the -alpha 3.7/type I form. The triplicated alpha-globin gene haplotype was also found. The risk of a severe (alpha-thalassemia1) phenotype associated with inheritance of - -/alpha alpha or -alpha/-alpha genotypes was low and was found predominantly in this study, in persons of Asian ethnic origin. The sample of Asians was too small to estimate carrier frequencies; however, based on results from the beta-thalassemia screening program, we estimated that about 4% of Asians (about 1,300 persons) in Montreal are alpha-thalassemia carriers. We identified persons heterozygous for both beta-thalassemia and alpha-thalassemia mutations. In these double heterozygotes, the effect of the triplicated alpha-globin gene was to make the erythrocyte parameters used for screening (MCV and %HbA2) more deviant from normal whereas deletion of 2 alpha-globin genes tended to normalize the erythrocyte values. These findings have implications for the screening program and reproductive counseling.     

Current status of thalassemia in minority populations in Guangxi, China

Thalassemia is one of the most common monogenic disorders in the world. In order to develop a community-based prevention program, we screened 12,900 individuals for alpha- and beta-thalassemia in Baise City, Guangxi, China, with hematological methods and molecular assays. We found that the frequency of carriers in this area for alpha-thalassemia is 15%. Beta-thalassemia carriers comprise 4.8% of the populations. Five mutations account for 98% of alpha-thalassemia [--SEA 46.7%; -alpha/4.2, 23.9%; -alpha/3.7, 21.7%; hemoglobin (Hb) Constant Spring, 6.5%; Hb Quong Sze, 1.1%]. Seven mutations in the beta-globin gene account for 99% of the mutations [codon (CD) 41/42 (-TCTT) (39.4%), CD 17(A-->T) (32%), CD 71/72 (+A) (7.4%), -28 (A-->G) (5.8%), IVS-2-654 (C-->T) (5.8%), CD26 (Hb E) (4%), IVS-1 (G-->A) (3.7%), and CD 43(G-->T) (1.9%)]. Most individuals with alpha-thalassemia major die in the uterus or shortly after birth. Among 106 patients with beta-thalassemia major followed by our clinic, the majority died before 5 years of age. Knowledge surveys about thalassemia were conducted. Our results show a severe lack of knowledge about thalassemia in both medical professionals and in the general populations. This study shows that thalassemia is a very severe public health issue in minority populations in Baise City, China. Identification of the common mutations will allow us to design cost-effective molecular tests. There is an urgent need to educate the general population and the medical community for a successful community-based prevention program.     

90个脊髓性肌萎缩家系的遗传学分析

目的对90个脊髓性肌萎缩(spinal muscular atrophy,SMA)家系进行基因诊断与产前诊断,为SMA的遗传学分析方法提供参考,并初步探讨SMA缺陷基因携带者基因筛査的必要性。方法应用多重连接探针扩增(multiplex ligation dependent probe amplification,MLP A)技术对90个SMA家系进行基因诊断,联合MLPA及等位基因特异性PCR(allele specific PCR,A&PCR)技术对家系进行产前诊断并对产前诊断结果进行分析。结果在90个SMA家系中,84对夫妻无SMA家族史,占比93%;85对夫妻有SMA生育史,占比94%;85个家系夫妻双方及3个家系的孕妇SMN1基因杂合缺失,为SMA缺陷基因携带者;2个家系孕妇SMN1基因纯合缺失,为SMA患者;产前诊断结果显示48名胎儿为SMA缺陷基因携带者,23名胎儿为正常胎儿,19名胎儿为SMA患者,其中无家族史夫妻双方再孕SMA胎儿18例,占总SMA胎儿95%、占总胎儿20%。结论应用MLPA对夫妻双方进行SMA缺陷基因携带者筛查,并联合使用MLPA和AS-PCR对携带者夫妻进行SMA产前诊断十分必要,对预防SMA出生缺陷具有积极意义。     

广州海珠区地中海贫血基因诊断结果分析与研究

目的对育龄人群进行地中海贫血筛查以预防重症地贫患儿的出生。方法利用血液学表型的分析、Gap-PCR及反向斑点杂交检测技术(reverse dot blot,RDB),对8095例育龄人群进行α、β地中海贫血筛查和基因诊断。结果血液学筛查出地贫阳性携带者为43.1%;其中3460例接受α、β地贫基因诊断,其中检出α地贫511例、β地贫352例、αβ复合地贫20例,检出率分别为14.77%、10.17%和0.58%。结论地贫在中国南方人群携带率很高,加强对育龄人群的地贫筛查和产前诊断,是预防重型地贫儿出生的有效措施。     

毛细管等电聚焦电泳定量分析健康成人及地中海贫血携带者的Hb A2

目的 对等电聚焦毛细管电泳(capillary isoelectric focusing，CIEF)检测血红蛋白A2(HbAt)含量做出用于筛查地中海贫血(地贫)携带者的方法学评价。方法 收集105名健康成人、93例经常规地贫筛查有阳性表型的连续临床样品。通过正常人样品分析比较CIEF测定HbA2与Helena Spife combo电泳系统结果的一致性；通过比较样品内和样品间Hb A2的CIEF测定值的变异系数评价该法的精确度和稳定性；通过分析阳性样品的基因型来评价CIEF检测地贫的准确性。结果 用CIEF分析当地健康人的Hb A2正常参考值为3．59％～5．23％。CIEF结果与常规血红蛋白电泳结果具有良好的线性关系；以基因分析为确诊标准，用CIEF检测Hb A2含量，及结合红细胞指数阳性测定值所筛查的87例α-地贫或β-地贫携带者、6例成人血红蛋白E病例样品均被准确诊断，未见假阳性或假阴性结果。结论 等电聚焦毛细管电泳是一种快速高效、高稳定性、高精确度的HbA2测定方法，可用作地贫携带者的常规筛查手段。     

The prevention of thalassemia in Sardinia

In this paper we review the characteristics and effectiveness of a program aimed at preventing homozygous beta-thalassemia in the Sardinian population. The target population for screening were couples at marriage, conception or early pregnancy. Awareness of the problem and the involvement of the population were achieved via the mass media or by personal approaches through lectures or discussions. Parents' Associations were consulted and have made themselves available to prospective couples in several critical areas. Education on thalassemias was introduced into the school curriculum. Counseling was based on private interviews at which the several options available were discussed with the individual carrier or the couples. Prenatal diagnosis was chosen by the large majority of couples counseled. The introduction of 1st trimester diagnosis resulted in a striking increase of the acceptance rate from 93.2 to 99.1%. Prenatal diagnosis was carried out initially by fetal blood analysis and thereafter by trophoblast or amniocyte DNA analysis. Direct detection of the mutation by oligonucleotide hybridization on agarose gel separated DNA fragments or by dot-blot analysis with allelic specific oligonucleotide probes on enzymatically amplified DNA was used. This program resulted in a decline in thalassemia major births of 90%. The reasons for residual cases were mostly lack of information and, less frequently, misdiagnoses or refusal of fetal diagnosis.     

Beta-thalassemia

Beta-thalassemia is caused by the reduced (beta⁺) or absent (beta⁰) synthesis of the beta globin chains of the hemoglobin tetramer. Three clinical and hematological conditions of increasing severity are recognized, i.e., the beta-thalassemia carrier state, thalassemia intermedia, and thalassemia major. The beta-thalassemia carrier state, which results from heterozygosity for beta-thalassemia, is clinically asymptomatic and is defined by specific hematological features. Thalassemia major is a severe transfusion-dependent anemia. Thalassemia intermedia comprehend a clinically and genotypically very heterogeneous group of thalassemia-like disorders, ranging in severity from the asymptomatic carrier state to the severe transfusion-dependent type. The clinical severity of beta-thalassemia is related to the extent of imbalance between the alpha and nonalpha globin chains. The beta globin (HBB) gene maps in the short arm of chromosome 11, in a region containing also the delta globin gene, the embryonic epsilon gene, the fetal A-gamma and G-gamma genes, and a pseudogene (ψB1). Beta-thalassemias are heterogeneous at the molecular level. More than 200 disease-causing mutations have been so far identified. The majority of mutations are single nucleotide substitutions, deletions, or insertions of oligonucleotides leading to frameshift. Rarely, beta-thalassemia results from gross gene deletion. In addition to the variation of the phenotype resulting from allelic heterogeneity at the beta globin locus, the phenotype of beta-thalassemia could also be modified by the action of genetic factors mapping outside the globin gene cluster and not influencing the fetal hemoglobin. Among these factors, the ones best delineated so far are those affecting bilirubin, iron, and bone metabolisms. Because of the high carrier rate for HBB mutations in certain populations and the availability of genetic counseling and prenatal diagnosis, population screening is ongoing in several at-risk populations in the Mediterranean. Population screening associated with genetic counseling was extremely useful by allowing couples at risk to make informed decision on their reproductive choices. Clinical management of thalassemia major consists in regular long-life red blood cell transfusions and iron chelation therapy to remove iron introduced in excess with transfusions. At present, the only definitive cure is bone marrow transplantation. Therapies under investigation are the induction of fetal hemoglobin with pharmacologic compounds and stem cell gene therapy.     

Hemoglobin barts hydrops fetalis syndrome

A 25 year old Vietnamese-Canadian pregnant woman was referred to our regional perinatal center at 31 weeks gestation after a routine ultrasound examination showing fetal ascites. A diagnosis of non-immune hydrops fetalis was made, and a Caesarean section was performed two days after hospital admission. An infant with Hb Barts hydrops fetalis was delivered who expired one hour after birth. alpha-Globin gene mapping of fetal DNA confirmed the diagnosis of homozygous alpha-thalassemia with deletion of all four alpha-globin genes. Both parents were shown to have alpha-thalassemia trait with deletion of both alpha-globin genes on one chromosome. This report further illustrates the need for a simple screening test for couples at risk of giving birth to infants with homozygous alpha-thalassemia. The availability of such a test would facilitate genetic counselling and prenatal diagnosis, thereby improving the quality of obstetrical care provided to these women at risk.     

Pregnancy outcome in carriers of Robertsonian translocations

Robertsonian translocation carriers are at increased risk for infertility, spontaneous abortions, or chromosomally unbalanced offspring. Reproductive counseling of these carriers is challenging. We performed a retrospective analysis of all prenatal diagnoses from Robertsonian translocation carriers during the time period January 1, 1992 through December 31, 2007. Data on the carriers and the results of their prenatal analyses were retrieved as well as data on their previous pregnancies. We identified 28 female and 20 male carriers of Robertsonian translocations and results on 79 prenatal samples were obtained. Among female carriers, 10.3% of chorionic villus sampling and 5.9% of amniocentesis results were unbalanced, whereas for male carriers, this was 3.6% and 0%, respectively. When considering all pregnancies involving carriers, 52.7% of those to female carriers and 61.8% of those to male carriers led to the birth of a healthy child. Male carriers in whom the translocation was ascertained because of infertility or recurrent miscarriages appear to be at higher risk, whereas carriers in whom ascertainment was because of a family history are at lower risk. We conclude that pregnancies of Robertsonian translocation carriers are at increased risk for chromosomal imbalance, and prenatal chromosomal testing should be discussed. More than half of the pregnancies led to the birth of a healthy child, but prediction of which couples will be successful in obtaining a pregnancy with or without assisted reproductive technologies and/or embryo selection remains difficult. The reason for ascertainment of the translocation should be taken into account when counseling these couples. The possibility of preimplantation genetic diagnosis should also be discussed with the couples.     

Prevention of hemoglobinopathies in non-endemic countries

Although hemoglobinopathies are primarily found in Africa, India, SouthEast Asia and the Mediterranean area, their distribution is becoming worldwide due to increased migration. Unlike other genetic diseases, carriers can be detected by simple and cost-effective means. Prenatal hemoglobinopathy screening is possible and direct prenatal diagnosis can be offered to couples at risk of giving birth to a child affected by a major defect of the beta-globin chain. Several hemoglobinopathy screening programmes have been organised in various countries of Northern Europe and have been effective in identifying couples at risk.     

Usefulness of certain red blood cell indices in diagnosing and differentiating thalassemia trait from iron-deficiency anemia

Iron-deficiency anemia and thalassemia are among the most common microcytic anemias. Differentiating these anemias by means of hemogrant indices is imprecise. Powerful statistical computer programming now enables sensitive discriminant analyses to aid in the diagnosis. Laboratory results from 383 adults were examined retrospectively and grouped according to their original diagnoses: normal (n = 78); beta-thalassemia (n = 134); alpha-thalassemia (n = 106); and iron-deficiency anemia (n = 65). Statistical analysis of results evaluated only RBC indices: RBC count, hemoglobin level, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and RBC distribution width. Stepwise multivariate discriminant analysis determined those indices that best differentiated the 4 groups. The Fisher linear discriminant function for each group was calculated and tested casewise. Discriminant analysis identified mean corpuscular hemoglobin, RBC count, mean corpuscular volume, and RBC distribution width as the best set of indices for differentiating the 4 diagnoses. Casewise testing of the calculated Fisher linear discriminant function resulted in mean-weighted sensitivity of 80.4%. The present study demonstrates that a set of linear discriminant functions based on routine hemogram data can effectively differentiate between alpha-thalassemia, beta-thalassemia, and iron-deficiency anemia, with a high degree of accuracy.     

Attitudes towards prenatal diagnosis and carrier screening for cystic fibrosis among the parents of patients in a paediatric cystic fibrosis clinic.

The parents of all children attending the Royal Brompton National Heart and Lung Hospital cystic fibrosis paediatric clinic were asked to complete an anonymous postal questionnaire addressing attitudes towards prenatal diagnosis and population carrier screening for cystic fibrosis (CF); 65% (170/261) of parents responded. Of the respondents, 92% would support the introduction of a population screening test to detect carriers of CF and 19% felt such a test should be mandatory. A total of 64% of CF parents felt they would choose not to have any further children in the knowledge that they were both carriers, 74% would choose to have a prenatal test if they became pregnant, 44% would consider terminating an affected pregnancy, 33% would not, and 23% were unsure. Overall, 72% of respondents indicated they would choose to avoid having a further child with CF either by not having further children or by terminating an affected pregnancy.     

泰国缺失型α地中海贫血1的产前基因诊断

目的对携带泰国缺失型α地中海贫血1,可能生育α地中海贫血高危胎儿的夫妇进行产前基因诊断。方法应用聚合酶链反应、DNA测序等方法对夫妇及胎儿DNA进行基因分析。结果4个家系的孕妇均为泰国缺失型α地中海贫血1复合α地中海贫血2的Hb H病患者,5个家系的孕妇或丈夫为泰国缺失型α地中海贫血1杂合子;其配偶为东南亚缺失型α地中海贫血1杂合子。他们的胎儿检出2例Hb Bart’s胎儿水肿综合征,1例Hb H病,4例α地中海贫血杂合子,2名正常。DNA测序分析证实PCR的检测结果。结论泰国缺失型α地中海贫血1的产前基因诊断研究,对遗传咨询和地中海贫血产前基因诊断具有重要意义。     

Do parental perceptions and motivations towards genetic testing and prenatal diagnosis for deafness vary in different cultures?

Surveys of attitudes of individuals with deafness and their families towards genetic testing or prenatal diagnosis have mostly been carried out in the West. It is expected that the perceptions and attitudes would vary amongst persons of different cultures and economic background. There is little information on the prevailing attitudes for genetic testing and prenatal diagnosis for deafness in developing countries. Therefore, this study evaluates the motivations of Indian people with inherited hearing loss towards such testing. Twenty‐eight families with history of congenital hearing loss (23 hearing parents with child/family member with deafness, 4 couples with both partners having deafness and 1 parent and child with deafness) participated in a semi‐structured survey investigating their interest, attitudes, and intentions for using genetic and prenatal testing for deafness. Participants opinioned that proper management and care of individuals with deafness were handicapped by limited rehabilitation facilities with significant financial and social burden. Nineteen (68%) opted for genetic testing. Twenty‐six (93%) expressed high interest in prenatal diagnosis, while 19 (73%) would consider termination of an affected fetus. Three hearing couples, in whom the causative mutations were identified, opted for prenatal diagnosis. On testing, all the three fetuses were affected and the hearing parents elected to terminate the pregnancies. This study provides an insight into the contrasting perceptions towards hearing disability in India and its influence on the desirability of genetic testing and prenatal diagnosis. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Patient and parental attitudes toward genetic screening and its implications at an adult cystic fibrosis centre

General population screening for cystic fibrosis carrier status in the United Kingdom would detect 72% of at-risk couples. Proper counselling would allow these couples to make informed reproductive choices, including the possibility of prenatal diagnosis and the termination of an affected pregnancy. However, children with cystic fibrosis born in this decade, given optimum treatment, now have an average life expectancy of 40 years, and there is no unanimity of opinion on how, where, when, or even if, screening should be offered. The purpose of this questionnaire-based study was to examine the attitudes of an adult clinic population who have grown up with cystic fibrosis, and of their parents, towards genetic screening programmes and the controversies and ethical dilemmas surrounding such programmes in cystic fibrosis. Both patients and parents supported prenatal screening (88% and 90%) and the option of terminating an affected pregnancy (68% and 84%). Only 22% of patients and 10% of parents felt that screening should be limited to families with a history of cystic fibrosis, and 19% and 6%, respectively, that prenatal diagnosis should be restricted to those with a previous child with cystic fibrosis. Despite the negative aspects of any screening programme and the acknowledged ethical problems peculiar to cystic fibrosis, the conclusion of our patients and parents who have lived intimately with the illness is that there should be the option of utilising information available from genetic screening for cystic fibrosis to guide reproductive choices. Pilot programmes to define the optimum management of such screening should continue.