Tissue differentiation and bone regeneration in an osteotomized mandible: a computational analysis of the latency period

Mandibular symphyseal distraction osteogenesis is a common clinical procedure to modify the geometrical shape of the mandible for correcting problems of dental overcrowding and arch shrinkage. In spite of consolidated clinical use, questions remain concerning the optimal latency period and the influence of mastication loading on osteogenesis within the callus prior to the first distraction of the mandible. This work utilized a mechano-regulation model to assess bone regeneration within the callus of an osteotomized mandible. A 3D model of the mandible was reconstructed from CT scan data and meshed using poroelastic finite elements (FE). The stimulus regulating tissue differentiation within the callus was hypothesized to be a function of the strain and fluid flow computed by the FE model. This model was then used to analyse tissue differentiation during a 15-day latency period, defined as the time between the day of the osteotomy and the day when the first distraction is given to the device. The following predictions are made: (1) the mastication forces generated during the latency period support osteogenesis in certain regions of the callus, and that during the latency period the percentage of progenitor cells differentiating into osteoblasts increases; (2) reducing the mastication load by 70% during the latency period increases the number of progenitor cells differentiating into osteoblasts; (3) the stiffness of new tissue increases at a slower rate on the side of bone callus next to the occlusion of the mandibular ramus which could cause asymmetries in the bone tissue formation with respect to the middle sagittal plane. Although the model predicts that the mastication loading generates such asymmetries, their effects on the spatial distribution of callus mechanical properties are insignificant for typical latency periods used clinically. It is also predicted that a latency period of longer than a week will increase the risk of premature bone union across the callus.     

The effect of distraction rate on bone histological and histomorphometrical properties in an ovine mandible model

Lengthening the mandible by distraction osteogenesis (DO) is nowadays a well-recognized technique in maxillofacial surgery. This study compared two different distraction rates and evaluated histological and histomorphometrical properties of the distracted bone in an experimental ovine mandible model with the goal of elaborating a universally accepted distraction protocol. Study Design: Tissue blocks of regenerated bone were harvested from twelve young adult sheep. DO was performed on the mandibular midline after five days of latency period. The sheep were divided into two groups. The first group underwent activation of 0.8 mm÷day during 12 days resulting in 9.6 mm of new bone while the second group followed a geometric rate pattern of 0.2 mm - three days, 0.4 mm - three days, 0.8 mm - three days and 1.6 mm - three days resulting in 9 mm of new bone. The regenerated bone was histologically and histomorphometrically analyzed after 30, 45 and 60 days of consolidation. The relative osteoid volume (OV÷TTV) was significantly increased in the geometric rate distraction group (p=0.015) comparing with linear distraction group while the relative bone volume (BV÷TTV) was significantly increased in the linear distraction group (p=0.019) compared to the geometric distraction group.     

富血小板纤维蛋白对下颌骨牵引成骨区RANKL表达的影响

目的　通过动物实验,研究应用富血小板纤维蛋白（Platelet-rich Fibrin,PRF）对兔下颌骨牵引成骨区核因子KB受体活化因子配体（receptor activator for NF-KB ligand,RANKL）的影响, 为临床研究与应用提供参考依据。 方法　在20只成年大耳白兔的一侧下颌骨前部行骨切开术,用牵引器延长一侧下颌骨4 mm,牵引间隙放置PRF膜;另一侧下颌骨行骨切开并安置牵引器,作为对照组,稳定期第1、7、14、21、28天,分别处死各组动物,取牵引区新生骨痂行组织学及RANKL免疫组化染色。 结果　下颌牵引延长后牵引间隙均有新骨形成,免疫组织化学显色RANKL主要定位于骨髓基质细胞的胞浆中,其中以稳定期的第1,14天的表达最强。在稳定期第1、14天,实验组较对照组RANKL表达的阳性细胞率及阳性面积百分比差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）,以后逐渐下降,第28 d仅有微弱表达。 结论　动物实验表明,PRF能促进兔下颌骨牵引成骨区新骨的生成,RANKL可能在牵引成骨过程中特别是调控组织细胞应力信号传递的早期发挥破骨作用。     

Three-Dimensional Simulation of Mandibular Distraction Osteogenesis: Mechanobiological Analysis

Distraction osteogenesis is a surgical process for reconstruction of skeletal deformities, which has been widely investigated from the clinical perspective. However, little has been analyzed about the capability of numerical models to predict the clinical outcome generated by distraction. Therefore, this article presents a finite element analysis of the mechanobiological behavior of a pediatric patient’s mandible with hemifacial microsomia during the distraction process. It focuses on the three-dimensional simulation of a long bone defect in the ramus of the mandible and introduces additional aspects to be considered in the computational simulation as compared to the bidimensional simulation. The evolution of the different tissues within the gap is evaluated and in order to check the effectiveness of the model, the predicted numerical outcome will be compared from a qualitative point of view with radiographies provided by the surgeons. It is shown that the morphology of the mandible changed in a similar manner than that observed clinically. These results reveal that three-dimensional models are useful tools in the predictive assessment of mandibular distraction osteogenesis.     

The effect of low intensity pulsed ultrasound on regenerate bone in a less-than-rigid biomechanical environment

The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of low intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPU) on distraction osteogenesis in a less-than-rigid biomechanical environment in a rabbit model. A less-rigid mini-lengthener was applied and a mid-tibial osteotomy performed in 20 New Zealand White rabbits. After a 7 day latency period, the tibiae were distracted 0.5 mm every 12 hours for 10 days. Ten of the rabbits received LIPU for 20 min/day (ultrasound group) and 10 received sham LIPU (control group) from day 17 until sacrifice on day 37. Radiographs were taken weekly after distraction and the callus area was measured. After sacrifice, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), torsional testing to failure, and histomorphometry were performed. On radiographs, all the treatment tibiae displayed persistent radiolucencies; however, only one of the control tibiae displayed a radiolucent interzone. Torsional strength of the treatment group was 54% of the contralateral tibia compared to 139% in the control group (p<0.008). Bone density and callus size were not significantly different between the 2 groups; however, the ultrasound group displayed a tendency towards more cartilage and fibrous tissue formation (p<0.16) and less bone (p<0.16) than controls. In a biomechanically unstable environment, LIPU appears to stimulate more cartilage formation in regenerated callus than in controls. This callus is biomechanically inferior to unstimulated callus at the early stage of healing tested. During distraction osteogenesis a sound biomechanical environment is important to achieving anticipated results.     

犬牙槽骨牵张成骨的生物力学和组织学分析

背景：牙槽骨牵张成骨是解决严重牙槽骨萎缩的重要方法,其成骨过程和生物力学对于以后的种植和修复极为重要,目前一直缺少相关的实验研究。 目的：分析犬牙槽骨牵张成骨的生物力学和组织学特点。 方法：先拔除12只杂种犬双侧下颌前磨牙,牙槽骨修整后,制作萎缩牙槽骨模型。3个月后,植入骨内型牙槽骨牵张器。经过7 d的间歇期,以1 mm/d,1次/d的频率进行牙槽骨垂直向增高。在固定期的1,2和3个月,对牵张后的牙槽骨进行临床、生物力学、放射学和组织学检测。 结果与结论：所有牵张器与周围组织愈合良好。牵张结束时,临床和放射学检查显示：萎缩牙槽骨分别增高 (4.80±0.50) mm和(5.12±0.67) mm。组织学检测发现牵张区骨小梁在固定期的1-3个月成熟,其剪切力逐步提高,固定期3个月时和自体骨的剪切力相当。结果显示牙槽骨牵张成骨的组织学和生物力学性能在固定期3个月时与自体骨相当。 中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：组织构建;骨细胞;软骨细胞;细胞培养;成纤维细胞;血管内皮细胞;骨质疏松;组织工程全文链接：     

脂联素对兔下颌快速牵张成骨的影响☆

背景：脂联素可参与骨代谢及成血管过程,但目前关于脂联素对牵张成骨有无促进作用尚不清楚。 目的：通过建立兔下颌快速牵张动物模型,探讨局部应用脂联素对骨牵张新骨再生的影响。 方法：16只新西兰大白兔随机摸球法均分为对照组及实验组,建立兔下颌单侧快速牵张模型,牵张速率为2 mm/d。在牵张开始的1,3,5 d,对照组及实验组分别于牵张间隙注入200 μL磷酸盐缓冲液或含有2 μg重组人脂联素的磷酸盐缓冲液。 结果与结论：两组动物牵张间隙内均可观察到新骨生成,组织学及显微CT检查显示实验组的新骨生成与钙化明显高于对照组。实验结果显示局部应用脂联素可有效促进兔下颌快速骨牵张的新骨再生。 关键词：脂联素;牵张成骨;动物模型;新骨再生;下颌骨 doi:10.3969/j.issn.1673-8225.2012.11.002      

Effect of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 on mandibular distraction at different rates in a rabbit model

This study aims to evaluate the effect of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) on mandibular distraction at routine and rapid distraction rates. Eighteen New Zealand white rabbits were assigned to 2 groups, 1 treated at a routine distraction rate (0.9 mm/d) and the other at a rapid distraction rate (2.7 mm/d). rhBMP-2 was injected into 1 side of the distraction regenerate at the end of the active distraction period; the contralateral side was used as a control. The distraction regenerates were analyzed by plain radiography, microcomputed tomography, and histologic examination. The results showed that rhBMP-2 can promote bone formation at both rapid and routine distraction rates, but no statistically significant difference was observed between the bone morphogenetic protein injection sides of the rapid and routine distraction groups. In conclusion, the study indicates that rhBMP-2 can enhance bone ossification at both routine and rapid distraction rates. The addition of rhBMP-2 seems to be able to compensate for the rapid distraction rate in mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Further longterm follow-up and mechanical strength test for the support of implants or conventional prostheses are necessary.     

下颌骨牵引成骨过程中基因干预对牵引区转化生长因子β1表达的影响?****

 背景：局部基因治疗能促进牵引区新骨的生成,但关于基因治疗后对局部生长因子表达的影响目前尚不清楚。 目的：观察电穿孔介导的基因治疗对兔下颌骨牵引成骨过程中转化生长因子β1表达的影响。 方法：新西兰大白兔双侧下颌骨截骨后3 d开始下颌骨牵引,0.8 mm/d,连续牵引7 d后,随机分为5组,分别在牵引区注射2 μg(0.1 g/L)重组质粒pIRES-hVEGF165-hBMP2、pIRES-hBMP2、pIRES-hVEGF165、空质粒pIRES及相同剂量的生理盐水。之后施加电穿孔刺激。 结果与结论：免疫组织化学染色发现转化生长因子β1主要在细胞胞浆中表达,给药7 d时骨端骨细胞、编织骨痂骨细胞、骨痂表面成骨细胞呈转化生长因子β1染色阳性;14 d时新生成的编织骨痂骨细胞、骨痂表面成骨细胞、肉芽组织中的间质细胞、单核巨细胞、多核巨细胞转化生长因子β1染色阳性;28 d时转化生长因子β1阳性细胞明显减少。其中注射重组质粒pIRES-hVEGF165-hBMP2、pIRES-hBMP2、pIRES-hVEGF165后转化生长因子β1的表达明显多于注射空质粒pIRES及生理盐水(P < 0.05或P < 0.01)。说明基因治疗能促进转化生长因子β1的表达,促进牵引区细胞基质的形成和新骨生成。       

有限元分析犬下颌不全截骨牵张时特定标志点位移情况

目的：利用犬不完全截骨牵张成骨的有限元模型观察牵张过程中下颌骨特定点位移情况。方法：有限元模型模拟不完全截骨（截骨处剩lmm舌侧皮质骨），观察下颌骨一些特定标志点在牵张过程中空间三维的位移趋势。结果：在牵张过程中牵张侧下颌骨标志点位移趋势为在内外（左右或x轴）方向上第五臼齿、喙突、髁状突前斜面前缘中点的运动趋势是向外的，而下颌角、髁状突后斜面后缘中点的运动趋势是向内的；在前后（y轴）方向上第五臼齿、喙突的运动趋势是向后的，而下颌角的运动趋势是向前的；在上下（z轴）方向上第五臼齿的运动趋势是向上的。结论：牵张侧下颌骨在矢状平面上有使下颌骨体前端拉高后端压低的倾向，在冠状平面上有使下颌骨体上缘外翻下缘内收的倾向。     

兔胫骨截骨延长区愈合过程的病理学观察

目的 :探讨截骨延长区骨愈合的病理学特点和新骨形成规律。方法 :取健康兔 2 7只建立胫骨骨延长动物模型 ,分别于延长的第 0、1、3、5、10、15、2 0、30、40天处死动物 ,在延长区取材进行病理组织学观察 ,同时用抗骨形成蛋白 (BMP)单抗作免疫组化染色。结果 :延长前即出现血肿 ,延长第 1天血肿机化 ,第 3天出现新的血肿 ,第 5天软骨形成和新血肿机化 ,第 15天出现膜内成骨、纤维性成骨和软骨内成骨 ,第 2 0天延长区大部分被骨性骨痂取代 ,第 30天开始改建。免疫组化染色显示延长区纤维母细胞、骨母细胞和软骨细胞均不同程度表达BMP。结论 :延长区存在膜内成骨、纤维性成骨和软骨内成骨 3种方式 ,以软骨内成骨为主 ;内源性BMP参与了延长区愈合过程。     

面中部牵张成骨有限元研究

对一骨性 类面型女性的面部软组织进行了计算机三维图形构建 ,并应用有限元法对牵张成骨手术的L e Fort 、 、 型三种手术方案进行三维有限元仿真。预测了术后面部软组织变化 ,确定颜面部特征点变形和截断骨块牵移量的比例 ;分析 L e Fort I型上颌复合体截断骨块前移的阻力中心 ,定位于软组织 A点约 30 mm后的小区域。结果表明 ,三维有限元仿真研究应用于牵张成骨手术中 ,能够很好的为手术实施中前牵引力作用点和方向提供指导 ,并通过预测软组织变化为选择制定手术计划提供参考     

胫骨牵引成骨过程中骨形态形成蛋白4及其受体的表达

背景：骨形态形成蛋白4及其受体在骨再生和修复过程中起着重要的作用,但具体机制尚不清楚。 目的：建立小鼠胫骨牵引成骨模型,分析骨形态形成蛋白4及其受体在牵引成骨过程中的表达,探讨机械牵张力转化为生物信号从而调节骨再生过程的机制。 方法：健康雄性8周龄CD-1小鼠36只,按照手术时间随机分成术后第5,9,13,17,24和31天组,每组6只。所有小鼠均接受左胫骨中上段低能截骨,安置体外延长固定架,截骨后5 d为静止期;截骨后第6天起开始每天进行胫骨延长,速率为0.2 mm,2次/d,共12 d,为牵引期;自第18天停止牵引,为固塑期。于术后第5,9,13,17,24和31天分别处死动物,采集胫骨标本,作组织学检查、RT-PCR和原位杂交实验分析骨形态形成蛋白4及其受体激活素样激酶3以及骨钙素的表达。 结果与结论：组织学检查显示静止期修复过程基本与骨折愈合过程相似。小鼠骨折断端在持续牵引下有明显的骨痂形成,骨形态形成蛋白4及其受体激活素样激酶3以及骨钙素的mRNA的表达明显增强。结果表明,牵引成骨是一种持续的骨再生过程,机械张力可通过刺激骨形态形成蛋白4及其受体以及骨钙素的持续高表达维持骨痂的不断形成和再塑,以充填连续延长的骨折间隙。     

富血小板血浆在兔下颌骨牵张成骨中的作用

目的探讨富血小板血浆对兔下颌骨牵张成骨的影响。方法将24只成年健康白兔随机分为2组,实验组在牵张期注射自体富血小板血浆于牵张间隙中,对照组不注射富血小板血浆。牵张结束后2、4、8周每组各处死4只动物取材,进行骨密度测量、组织学和扫描电镜观察。结果所有实验动物下颌骨均被成功延长7.0mm,牵张间隙中可见新骨组织生成与改建。同对照组相比,实验组新骨生成与矿化较快,牵张间隙中骨小梁分布密度及成熟度也较高。结论自体富血小板血浆对兔下颌骨牵张成骨可能有明显的促进作用。     

2型糖尿病大鼠骨折愈合障碍与体内晚期糖基化终末产物的变化

背景：近年来,晚期糖基化终末产物在骨组织领域的作用日益受到重视,而糖代谢紊乱是引起晚期糖基化终末产物增加的主要原因之一。 目的：观察2型糖尿病大鼠体内晚期糖基化终末产物表达的变化,并探讨其与糖尿病骨折愈合障碍的关系。 方法：30只SD大鼠随机均分为2组,实验组制备2型糖尿病模型,对照组正常饲养。糖尿病模型制备成功后,所有大鼠建立左胫骨骨折牵引成骨模型,胫骨延长0.3 mm/d,持续14 d。 结果与结论：牵引结束后,X射线摄片显示实验组糖尿病模型大鼠骨折断端之间牵引骨痂形成较对照组明显减少;骨痂组织学检查表现为微骨柱排列紊乱,初始基质前沿浅染。ELISA法检测实验组血清和双侧骨痂组织中晚期糖基化终末产物水平较对照组明显升高(P < 0.01),骨钙素明显降低(P < 0.01)。提示2型糖尿病大鼠骨折牵引骨痂生成障碍,而骨组织中晚期糖基化终末产物水平增高可能是导致2型糖尿病骨折愈合障碍的原因。 中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：组织构建;骨细胞;软骨细胞;细胞培养;成纤维细胞;血管内皮细胞;骨质疏松;组织工程全文链接：     

Vibratory Coherence as an Alternative to Radiography in Assessing Bone Healing After Osteodistraction

Distraction osteogenesis is used in orthopedics to lengthen bones by cutting or breaking the bone and gradually separating the two pieces as new bone fills the intervening space. There is a need for early assessment of the degree of bone healing that allows for normal functioning without unwanted side effects. This study compared different techniques used to evaluate the degree of bone healing during mandibular osteodistraction in 21 rabbits. For each rabbit, the mandible was cut in a surgical procedure and then 72 h later distraction began at a rate of 3 mm per day. Bone formation at the distraction site was assessed by in vivo photodensitometry on head radiographs, an in vivo (nondestructive) vibratory coherence test across the distraction site, a postmortem, ex vivo (destructive) three-point bending mechanical test, and by postmortem, ex vivo (destructive) histological examination. Statistical analyses included analysis of variance and correlation coefficient tests. The findings revealed that the results of bone photodensity and the mechanical three-point test are highly and positively correlated with the results of the vibration test. The use of the vibration test may provide a substitute for or augment the routine use of radiography for in vivo evaluation and monitoring of bone healing. © 2002 Biomedical Engineering Society. PAC2002: 8780-y, 8719Rr     

人骨形态发生蛋白2基因修饰自体骨髓间充质干细胞移植促进兔下颌骨牵张成骨实验的组织形态学观察

背景：如何提高牵张成骨过程中新骨形成的速度和质量,缩短牵张成骨治疗时间,减少并发症的发生是目前该领域的研究热点。 目的：观察人骨形态发生蛋白2基因修饰自体骨髓间充质干细胞移植对兔下颌骨牵张成骨新骨形成的促进作用。 方法：36只新西兰白兔随机摸球法分为3组。建立牵张成骨动物模型,在固定期第2天,实验组于牵张间隙注射人骨形态发生蛋白2基因修饰的自体骨髓间充质干细胞;对照组注射等量自体骨髓间充质干细胞;空白组注射等量生理盐水。 结果与结论：在固定期2周及6周实验组牵张区骨小梁形成质量明显好于对照组和空白组。证实骨形态发生蛋白2基因修饰的自体骨髓间充质干细胞移植能有效促进兔下颌骨牵张成骨新骨形成。     

The effect of pulsed ultrasound on mandibular distraction

This study evaluated the effect of pulsed ultrasound on tissue repair and bone growth during mandibular osteodistraction. Twenty-one rabbits were divided into three groups of 7. The distraction started 72 h after surgically severing both sides of the mandible and proceeded at a rate of 1.5 mm/12 h for 5 days. Group 1 received pulsed ultrasound (nominally 200 s pulse of 1.5 MHz at a 1.1 kHz pulse repetition frequency, 30 mW/cm²) for 20 min on both sides of the mandible every other day (alternating sides). Group 2 received the same pulsed ultrasound treatment on one side of the mandible every day for 20 min. Group 3 did not receive any ultrasound treatment. Bone formation at the distraction site was assessed by photodensitometry on head radiographs, a vibratory coherence test across the distraction site, a postmortem three-point bending mechanical stiffness test, and a postmortem histological examination. Statistical analyses performed using analysis of variance revealed that pulsed ultrasound enhanced bone formation at the distraction site with a high level of significance when assessed by the increase in new bone photodensity (p=0.001), vibratory coherence (p=0.001), mechanical stiffness (p=0.003), and qualitative histological studies, especially when the pulsed ultrasound treatment was directly applied daily. © 2002 Biomedical Engineering Society. PAC2002: 8750Kk, 8763Df     

双维控制牙槽骨牵张器的成骨效应

背景：牵张成骨增高牙槽嵴在基础研究及临床已有很多成功报道,双维控制垂直牙槽骨牵张器可有效防止单向直线牵张器行牙槽骨牵张发生轴向移位。 目的：研制双维控制的牙槽骨牵张器,并通过动物实验观察其成骨效应。 方法：选择杂种犬4只,拔除一侧下颌前磨牙形成萎缩牙槽骨模型。1个月后行骨切开放置双维牵张器,7 d后垂直牵张 (1 mm/d,共5 d)。完成垂直牵张后,利用双维牵张器颊向控制功能将移动骨块颊向牵出(大约2.4 mm),固定2个月后行大体观察及组织学检查。 结果与结论：4只犬中2只黏膜伤口愈合良好,2只黏膜出现裂开,行二次缝合后愈合,牵张器固位良好,未出现松动、脱落。牵张骨块向垂直向及颊向的位移量满足实验目的要求,牙槽骨垂直向高度平均增加(5.0±0.2) mm,颊向宽度平均增加(2.4±0.3) mm。大体观察及组织学检查均证实牵张成骨的骨块新骨形成良好。说明双维控制垂直牙槽骨牵张器能较好的控制移动骨块垂直或颊向的移动方向,并且新骨形成良好。     

富血小板纤维蛋白对兔下颌骨牵引成骨区骨形态发生蛋白-4表达的影响

目的:探讨富血小板纤维蛋白(PRF)对牵引成骨区骨形态发生蛋白-4(BMP-4)表达的影响。方法:25只大耳白兔随机分2组,分别行双侧下颌骨皮质骨切开术,一侧下颌骨牵引间隙放置PRF膜作为实验组,对侧作为对照组,分别于稳定期第3、7、14、21、28天处死一组动物,切取牵引间隙处骨痂行H-E染色和BMP-4免疫组织化学显色,细胞图像分析仪测量牵引间隙处骨痂BMP-4表达情况。结果:下颌牵引延长后牵引间隙均有新骨形成,免疫组织化学显色显示BMP-4主要定位于成骨细胞的细胞质中。实验组在稳定期3、7、14、21 d BMP-4表达的阳性细胞率和阳性面积百分比均显著高于对照组,稳定期28 d BMP-4表达的阳性细胞率和阳性面积百分比与对照组比较差异均无统计学意义。结论:PRF能促进兔下颌骨牵引成骨区新骨的生成,BMP-4可能在牵引成骨过程中调控组织细胞应力信号传递,发挥成骨作用。