The Plight of Older Persons as Caregivers to People Infected/Affected by HIV/AIDS: Evidence from Uganda

This paper describes the challenges faced by elderly persons (50 years and above) in Uganda, as parents and/or relatives of persons infected by HIV and as caregivers of the infected relatives and their uninfected children. Little is known regarding these indirect impacts of HIV/AIDS on the elderly in sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, the elderly are most often the main caregivers of HIV-infected persons and their families. Data used in this study were obtained from focus group discussions and in-depth interviews conducted among elderly respondents in 10 rural and urban communities within two Ugandan districts, Luwero and Kamuli. Findings indicate that the elderly do provide care to patients with AIDS at the terminal stage of the illness-when patients most need constant care. In most cases, the challenge of caring for the sick patients is compounded by the responsibility to care for the children affected by HIV/AIDS, which also starts when their parents are still living, not when the children become orphans. This demanding work was reported to negatively affect the elderly in various dimensions (economic, emotional, physical, and nutritional), all of which impacts their health and well-being. The responsibility for day-to-day patient care is borne primarily by elderly females, who reported a higher rate of physical ailments than male respondents-perhaps an indication of their disproportionate contribution to the care responsibilities. Most of the elderly respondents interviewed have a lot of anxiety about their future health and well-being, which they attributed in most part to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. These challenges do appear to exacerbate the aging process of the elderly whose health and well-being are already affected by the poor resource base and weak health infrastructure in this setting.     

Prevalence of depressive symptoms and associated factors among adolescents living with HIV/AIDS in South Western Uganda

ABSTRACT

Adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV) are prone to depression, which can have detrimental effects including disease progression, poor treatment adherence and mortality. We aimed to determine the prevalence of depressive symptoms and their associated factors among ALHIV in Uganda. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among ALHIV (10–19 years) attending urban and rural clinics in Mbarara, Uganda between March and May 2017. Presence of depressive symptoms was assessed using the Centre for Epidemiological Studies’ Depression scale. We interviewed 336 adolescents with a median age of 13 years, 62% of whom were female. A third (37%) had disclosed their HIV/AIDS status and 13% were sexually active. Overall, 154 (～46%, [95% CI: 40.5–51.2]) had depressive symptoms. On bivariate analysis, the odds of having depressive symptoms were higher among adolescents who were?≥?15 years, had disclosed HIV status, traveled >30?min for routine care and had risky sexual practices. On multiple variable analysis, only travel time to the clinic of >30?min was independently associated with depressive symptoms (AOR?=?1.6 [95% CI: 1.02–2.7]). With the high prevalence of depressive symptoms among ALHIV in Uganda, screening and prompt treatment of depression should be incorporated within their routine care.     

A novel symptom cluster analysis among ambulatory HIV/AIDS patients in Uganda

Symptom clusters are gaining importance given HIV/AIDS patients experience multiple, concurrent symptoms. This study aimed to: determine clusters of patients with similar symptom combinations; describe symptom combinations distinguishing the clusters; and evaluate the clusters regarding patient socio-demographic, disease and treatment characteristics, quality of life (QOL) and functional performance. This was a cross-sectional study of 302 adult HIV/AIDS outpatients consecutively recruited at two teaching and referral hospitals in Uganda. Socio-demographic and seven-day period symptom prevalence and distress data were self-reported using the Memorial Symptom Assessment Schedule. QOL was assessed using the Medical Outcome Scale and functional performance using the Karnofsky Performance Scale. Symptom clusters were established using hierarchical cluster analysis with squared Euclidean distances using Ward’s clustering methods based on symptom occurrence. Analysis of variance compared clusters on mean QOL and functional performance scores. Patient subgroups were categorised based on symptom occurrence rates. Five symptom occurrence clusters were identified: Cluster 1 (n = 107), high–low for sensory discomfort and eating difficulties symptoms; Cluster 2 (n = 47), high–low for psycho-gastrointestinal symptoms; Cluster 3 (n = 71), high for pain and sensory disturbance symptoms; Cluster 4 (n = 35), all high for general HIV/AIDS symptoms; and Cluster 5 (n = 48), all low for mood-cognitive symptoms. The all high occurrence cluster was associated with worst functional status, poorest QOL scores and highest symptom-associated distress. Use of antiretroviral therapy was associated with all high symptom occurrence rate (Fisher’s exact = 4, P < 0.001). CD4 count group below 200 was associated with the all high occurrence rate symptom cluster (Fisher’s exact = 41, P < 0.001). Symptom clusters have a differential, affect HIV/AIDS patients’ self-reported outcomes, with the subgroup experiencing high-symptom occurrence rates having a higher risk of poorer outcomes. Identification of symptom clusters could provide insights into commonly co-occurring symptoms that should be jointly targeted for management in patients with multiple complaints.     

Socio-demographic correlates of depression and anxiety among female caregivers living with HIV in rural Uganda

Women living with HIV are at increased risk for psychosocial distress, especially among social and economically disadvantaged women living in rural areas. Little is known about how social support and wealth impacts the mental health of women caring for young children in low- and middle-income countries. The purpose of this paper was to assess demographic, socio-economic, and social support correlates of depression and anxiety in HIV-infected+ female caregivers living in rural Uganda. Depression and anxiety were assessed using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-25), two-domains of social support (family and community) were measured with the adapted Multidimensional Scale for Perceived Social Support, and wealth was measured using a checklist of material possessions and housing quality among 288 women. Multivariable linear regression models assessed the association of depression and anxiety with demographic and social predictors. Sixty-one percent of women reported clinically significant symptoms of depression or anxiety using the standard HSCL-25 cut-off of >1.75. Lower wealth (p?=?.01) and family support (p?=?.01) were significantly associated with more depressive symptoms, with greater family support being more protective of depression in the highest wealth group (top 20%) compared to the lowest. More anxiety symptoms were associated with lower wealth (p?=?.001), lower family support (p?=?.02), and higher community support (p?=?.003). Economic and social support factors are important predictors of caregiver mental health in the face of HIV disease in rural Uganda. Findings suggest that interventions should consider ways to increase economic opportunities and strengthen family support for HIV+ caregivers.     

Appraisal of the inherent socio-demographic dynamics of HIV/AIDS epidemic in four districts of South-Western Uganda

Although HIV prevalence in Uganda is much lower than it once was, AIDS is still claiming many lives each year with clear signs of escalating rural epidemics. The objective of this study was to appraise the socio-economic and demographic dynamics of HIV/AIDS epidemic in South-Western Uganda. Data were collected with standard closed ended semi-structured questionnaires self-administered to consenting, 605 HIV/AIDS patients, selected using the multistage random sampling technique, logistic linear regression, randomized block design and Pearson's Chi square test (α=0.01) were used to analyse the data obtained. The duration of carriage was inversely proportional (r=-0.94) to population of HIV/AIDS patients surveyed. There were 98.2% Bantu (55.5% Banyankole and 22.6% Baganda); 77.5% females and 22.5% males; more widows (38.0%) than married (35.5%). HIV/AIDS prevalence generally decreased with increasing level of education. The highest (66.7%) HIV/AIDS prevalence was recorded in Bushenyi, followed by 58.4% in Masaka, 57.9% in Mbarara and 53.3% in Rukungiri. Rukungiri patients above 60 years of age harboured 57.1% HIV/AIDS followed by 45.5% among Masaka patients aged 11 – 20 years and 40% among Mbarara patients less than 10 years of age. HIV/AIDS prevalence was significantly (p<0.05) dependent on socio-economic and demographic factors of surveyed population. Therefore socio-economic and demographic factors underlie HIV/AIDS prevalence in this region. Observed differences in prevalence of HIV/AIDS between the surveyed districts were remarkable and warrant regular surveillance for updated disease epidemiology. Education can debunk the generally misconstrued roles of social, economic and demographic factors in the spread of HIV/AIDS.     

Factors associated with uptake of home-based HIV counselling and testing and HIV care services among identified HIV-positive persons in Masaka,Uganda

We investigated uptake of home-based HIV counselling and testing (HBHCT) and HIV care services post-HBHCT in order to inform the design of future HBHCT programmes. We used data from an open-label cluster-randomised controlled trial which had demonstrated the effectiveness of a post-HBHCT counselling intervention in increasing linkage to HIV care. HBHCT was offered to adults (≥18 years) from 28 rural communities in Masaka, Uganda; consenting HIV-positive care naïve individuals were enrolled and referred for care. The trial's primary outcome was linkage to HIV care (clinic-verified registration for care) six months post-HBHCT. Random effects logistic regression was used to investigate factors associated with HBHCT uptake, linkage to care, CD4 count receipt, and antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation; all analyses of uptake of post-HBHCT services were adjusted for trial arm allocation. Of 13,455 adults offered HBHCT, 12,100 (89.9%) accepted. HBHCT uptake was higher among men [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.20, 95% confidence interval (CI)?=?1.07–1.36] than women, and decreased with increasing age. Of 551 (4.6%) persons who tested HIV-positive, 205 (37.2%) were in care. Of those not in care, 302 (87.3%) were enrolled in the trial and of these, 42.1% linked to care, 35.4% received CD4 counts, and 29.8% initiated ART at 6 months post-HBHCT. None of the investigated factors was associated with linkage to care. CD4 count receipt was lower in individuals who lived ≥30?min from an HIV clinic (aOR 0.60, 95%CI?=?0.34–1.06) versus those who lived closer. ART initiation was higher in older individuals (≥45 years versus <25 years, aOR 2.14, 95% CI?=?0.98–4.65), and lower in single (aOR 0.60, 95% CI?=?0.28–1.31) or divorced/separated/widowed (aOR 0.47, 95% CI?=?0.23–0.93) individuals versus those married/cohabiting. HBHCT was highly acceptable but uptake of post-HBHCT care was low. Other than post-HBHCT counselling, this study did not identify specific issues that require addressing to further improve linkage to care.     

Multiple impacts of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on the aged in rural Uganda

This paper reports research conducted among theaged residents of a rural, Southwestern Ugandanvillage. It documents their knowledge ofHIV/AIDS, their perceptions of their own riskof infection, and the multiple impacts of thecurrent HIV/AIDS epidemic on their lives. Mostolder individuals have a sound understanding ofthe sexual transmission of HIV, and someconsider themselves to be at risk of infectionthrough having multiple sexual partners. Theyattempt to limit their children's exposure toHIV, but many of these children have left thevillage to live in urban areas of relativelyhigh HIV prevalence. The loss of adult childrendeprives the aged of any support these childrenmight have provided as their parents'capabilities declined with advancing age.Female-headed households were more affected inthis way than were male-headed households. TheAIDS epidemic has increased the number ofburials taking place in the village, and theiraccumulated costs, both in time and money, andcreated new hardships for the aged, who alsohave to cope with grief that accompaniescontinuing deaths among their children andtheir contemporaries' children.     

Sexually transmitted infections and infectiousness beliefs among people living with HIV/AIDS: implications for HIV treatment as prevention

Objectives

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) significantly impact the health of people living with HIV/AIDS, increasing HIV infectiousness and therefore transmissibility. The current study examined STIs in a community sample of 490 HIV‐positive men and women.

Methods

Assessments were performed using confidential computerized interviews in a community research setting.

Results

Fourteen per cent of the people living with HIV/AIDS in this study had been diagnosed with a new STI in a 6‐month period. Individuals with a new STI had significantly more sexual partners in that time period, including non‐HIV‐positive partners. Participants who had contracted an STI were significantly more likely to have detectable viral loads and were less likely to know their viral load than participants who did not contract an STI. Multivariate analysis showed that believing an undetectable viral load leads to lower infectiousness was associated with contracting a new STI.

Conclusions

Individuals who believed that having an undetectable viral load reduces HIV transmission risks were more likely to be infectious because of STI coinfection. Programmes that aim to use HIV treatment for HIV prevention must address infectiousness beliefs and aggressively control STIs among people living with HIV/AIDS.     

HIV/AIDS and family support systems: A situation analysis of people living with HIV/AIDS in Lagos State

Current statistics about the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Nigeria do not reveal the broader social and economic impacts of the disease on the family. The study therefore primarily aimed to address the socio-economic effects of HIV infection on individuals and their families. The study was carried out in Lagos State. In-depth interviews were employed to collect information from 188 people living with HIV/AIDS through support groups in the state, while four focus group discussions were conducted to elicit information from people affected by AIDS about the socio-economic impacts of HIV/AIDS on families in Nigeria. From the survey, among people living with HIV/AIDS, 66% of females and males were in the age group 21–40 years, while 10% were older people above 60 years of age. Findings revealed that as HIV/AIDS strikes at parents, grand parents are assuming responsibility for bringing up the children of the infected persons and the orphans of those killed by the virus. It was striking that some of the older caregivers could not meet the requirement of these children. They are often forced to work more than they would have, or borrow in order to cope with the needs of these extra mouths. Some of the infected people have sold their properties to enable them to cope with the economic effects of the virus, while their children have had to drop out of school, since they could not afford the school fees and other related expenses. It was suggested that PLWHA should be economically empowered with adequate medical treatment, in order to reduce the impact of the disease on the family.     

Stigma,discrimination and the implications for people living with HIV/AIDS in South Africa

Stigma and discrimination play significant roles in the development and maintenance of the HIV epidemic. It is well documented that people living with HIV and AIDS experience stigma and discrimination on an ongoing basis. This impact goes beyond individuals infected with HIV to reach broadly into society, both disrupting the functioning of communities and complicating prevention and treatment of HIV. This paper reviews the available scientific literature on HIV/AIDS and stigma in South Africa, as well as press reports on the same subject over a period of 3 years. Analysis of this material indicates that stigma drives HIV out of the public sight, so reducing the pressure for behaviour change. Stigma also introduces a desire not to know one's own status, thus delaying testing and accessing treatment. At an individual level stigma undermines the person's identity and capacity to cope with the disease. Fear of discrimination limits the possibility of disclosure even to potential important sources of support such as family and friends. Finally, stigma impacts on behaviour change as it limits the possibility of using certain safer sexual practices. Behaviour such as wanting to use condoms could be seen as a marker of HIV, leading to rejection and stigma. All interventions need to address stigma as part of their focus. However, the difficulty of the task should not be underestimated, as has been shown by the persistence of discrimination based on factors such as race, gender and sexual orientation.     

老年HIV感染者/AIDS病人临床特征的研究

目的探讨分析老年艾滋病（AIDS）病人的临床特点以及治疗经验。方法回顾性研究1999-2007年收治的、年龄超过60岁的、老年艾滋病病毒（HIV）感染者/AIDS病人的临床数据资料,包括人口统计学、免疫学指标、病毒学指标、机会性疾病及HIV/AIDS诊断情况,以及老年抗病毒治疗情况等。结果13例病人中,男性10例,女性3例;年龄平均63.6岁（61～71岁）;4例经过性传播途径感染,2例经过输血传播,7例不详。CD4^＋T淋巴细胞26-1 395/μl,平均262/μl;CD8^＋T淋巴细胞484-7 591/μl,平均1 395/μl;病毒载量1例检测结果是〈50拷贝/ml,4例为3.43-5.46Log10拷贝/ml,平均4.44 Log10拷贝/ml。机会性感染中,真菌感染为40%,结核30%,CMV感染20%,消耗综合征20%。13例中7例进行了抗病毒治疗。结论老年人感染HIV/AIDS可以造成各种机会性疾病。老年HIV感染者/AIDS病人需要进行联合的抗逆转录病毒治疗。     

低收入高结核病负担国家的成人HIV/AIDS,特别是合并结核病者的处置

由于在低收入国家获得HIV抗逆转录病毒(antiretroviralARV)制剂可能性的提高,目前,许多临床医生需要ARV应用方面的培训。现在临床医生在治疗结核病(TB)时,还要进一步考虑到HIV/AIDS的情况。本文概要介绍医生处置HIV感染者时需要解决的关键问题,尤其是HIV/TB双重感染者。初级卫生保健医生要对所有提示HIV感染的症状、体征者和所有结核病患者进行HIV快速检测诊断。本文主要内容为:对HIV检测前和检测后的咨询问题进行探讨。对HIV感染者进行评估,确定临床分期;通过某些实验室检查判断免疫抑制的程度,以便确定应用ARV治疗和结核病预防性治疗的最佳时机。ARV治疗需要良好的依从性,建议劝导和加强依从性。介绍ARV治疗方案和患者随访要求。优先治疗结核病。不管是否合并HIV感染,治疗结核病的原则是相同的。对合并结核病的患者应用ARV提出了建议。必须建立标准化和不断充实的信息系统,以便监控HIV与结核病双重感染者的处置及结核病和HIV联合防治的执行情况。通过对结核病患者进行HIV感染的筛查,发现HIV感染病例,并对其进行诊断和处置,医生能为减少HIV负担做出贡献,同样也为减少结核病负担做出贡献。     

HIV感染者和AIDS病人的咨询需求

目的 对艾滋病病毒(HIV)感染者和艾滋病(AIDS)病人的AIDS咨询需求进行调查。方法 对111名HIV感染者和AIDS病人进行流行病学问卷调查和个人深入访谈。结果 90％以上的第1次咨询是在感染以后。对于期望的咨询方式，HIV感染者最希望获得面对面咨询，占81．98％。结论 在今后的工作中需要加强咨询人员面对面的咨询能力。     

Understanding culture and HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa

Early in the study of HIV/AIDS, culture was invoked to explain differences in the disease patterns between sub-Saharan Africa and Western countries. Unfortunately, in an attempt to explain the statistics, many of the presumed risk factors were impugned in the absence of evidence. Many cultural practices were stripped of their meanings, societal context and historical positioning and transformed into cofactors of disease. Other supposedly beneficial cultural traits were used to explain the absence of disease in certain populations, implicitly blaming victims in other groups. Despite years of study, assumptions about culture as a cofactor in the spread of HIV/AIDS have persisted, despite a lack of empirical evidence. In recent years, more and more ideas about cultural causality have been called into question, and often disproved by studies. Thus, in light of new evidence, a review of purported cultural causes of disease, enhanced by an understanding of the differences between individual and population risks, is both warranted and long overdue. The preponderance of evidence suggests that culture as a singular determinant in the African epidemic of HIV/AIDS falls flat when disabused of its biased and ethnocentric assumptions.     

男男性行为人群HIV感染者/AIDS病人耻辱感的影响因素

目的了解北京市男男性行为人群(MSM)艾滋病病毒(HIV)感染者/艾滋病(AIDS)病人耻辱感现状,分析影响因素,探索降低耻辱感的科学方法。方法通过方便抽样选取262名MSM人群HIV感染者/AIDS病人,进行一般情况和耻辱感的问卷调查。结果耻辱量表四个维度得分分别为个人耻辱(53.22±8.13)分、担心公开(33.20±3.73)分、负面自我形象(35.84±6.40)分、关注公众态度(61.31±8.44)分。耻辱感随着感染情况告知家人、好友的人数增多而降低(P<0.05),在婚者的耻辱感低于离异/丧偶者。结论如何获得家人和周围好友的情感支持,是降低HIV感染者/AIDS病人耻辱感的关键因素。     

性工作法律与艾滋病防治的国际视角分析

目的探讨有利于在性工作者人群中开展艾滋病防治的性工作法律制度。方法采用文献研究方式,针对性工作法律和艾滋病防治之间关系研究的主要国际文献开展分析。结果国际社会对性工作的立法框架可大体分为三类:禁止性法律、规范许可性法律和性工作非罪化法律。从公共卫生的角度分析,禁止性的法律使性工作地下化,不利于艾滋病防治;规范许可性法律无法有效解决未经登记的性工作者的健康问题;性工作非罪化法律可避免性工作者转入地下,并在健康卫生服务和行为干预的配合下,推动艾滋病防治工作。结论在三种性工作法律制度中,性工作非罪化的立法模式,最有利于在性工作群体中有效开展艾滋病防治工作。     

中药治疗200例HIV感染者/AIDS患者的结果分析

目的　分析中药治疗艾滋病病毒(HIV)感染者/艾滋病(AIDS)患者后的实验室数据及临床变化特点。方法　采用治疗前后自身对照的方法,对1 999～2 0 0 2年在北京佑安医院接受中药治疗的2 0 0例HIV感染者/AIDS患者的实验室数据及临床症状进行分析。结果　(1 )病毒载量(VL)的变化:接受治疗的2 0 0例中,VL下降超过1log 2例(%) ,VL下降超过0 .5log 1 8例(9%)。(2 )CD+ 4 细胞数的变化:在CD+ 4 ≥2 0 0 /μl的1 2 9例患者中,治疗后5 6例(43. 4%)患者的CD+ 4 细胞数上升>5 0 /μl;在CD+ 4 细胞数<2 0 0 /μl的71例患者中,只有6例(8 5 %)CD+ 4 细胞数上升>5 0 /μl。同时,有85 %的患者在接受中药治疗后临床症状都有不同程度的改善。结论　中药能部分改善HIV感染者/AIDS患者的免疫功能和临床症状,但在病毒抑制方面的作用较弱。中药治疗时间越早,疗效越好;晚期治疗则疗效较差。