Mood and carbohydrate cravings

The relationship between mood and carbohydrate cravings, and the possible role of gender in these associations, was investigated in a sample of 113 males and 138 female college students. Participants completed a Cravings Questionnaire and several mood inventories (profile of mood states, Beck Depression Inventory, and the Vitality Inventory) in groups of 25. Individuals classifying themselves as "carbohydrate cravers" reported foods rich in carbohydrates, and "protein cravers" reported protein-rich foods as being the ones they most strongly craved. Carbohydrate cravers reported feeling distressed prior to their cravings and satisfied, happy/good and relaxed following carbohydrate consumption. Protein cravers reported feeling anxious or hungry prior to their cravings and happy, normal, bored, and energetic following protein-rich food consumption. A non-significant correlation existed between "protein" cravers' ratings of craving intensity and mood, but a significant positive correlation existed between "carbohydrate" cravers' ratings of craving intensity and almost all mood scales assessed for both male and female "carbohydrate" cravers. The correlation between craving intensity and mood existed predominately with individuals who craved sweet carbohydrate-rich foods.     

Sugar and fat: cravings and aversions

Food cravings are extremely common, particularly among women. Cravings are frequently reported for specific types of foods, including chocolate and foods high in both sugar and fat. Cravings for specific macronutrients, such as carbohydrate, have been postulated to result from a physiological need to alter neurotransmitters in such states as eating disorders, affective disorders or obesity. However, studies of such cravings are often confounded by differing sensory properties of high and low carbohydrate foods. There is some evidence that sweet, high fat foods are preferred by women with binge-eating disorders and that those preferences are mediated by the endogenous opioid system. Aversion to fat is seen primarily in women with anorexia nervosa. However, it is possible that changes in fat preference may be achieved through behavioral or pharmacological approaches. An understanding of food cravings and aversions may lead to improved methods for the prevention and treatment of obesity and eating disorders.     

Menstrual cycle and food cravings in young college women

The effect of the menstrual cycle on food cravings was examined in a population of 83 young college women during a 6-week longitudinal study. Food cravings and menstrual symptoms were evaluated by measuring subject responses in weekly questionnaires ("craving sheets"). The women were not told that the central objective of the study was to examine the effects of the menstrual cycle on food cravings. The menstrual cycle was divided into four stages: menstrual flow; the first half of the cycle, excluding menstrual flow; the second half of the cycle, excluding the premenstrual phase; and 1 week premenstrual. Cravings for 32 foods were examined on a weekly basis under controlled environmental conditions. Foods tested were categorized according to common characteristics. The women exhibited a greater preference for chocolate foods during menstrual flow than during the other menstrual stages. Cravings for high-sugar foods, high-starch foods, or lower carbohydrate foods were not significantly affected by the stage of the menstrual cycle.     

Food “Cravings” and the Acute Effects of Alprazolam on Food Intake in Women with Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

Women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMS) report negative mood premenstrually, and increased food cravings and food intake. Although the benzodiazepine alprazolam has been used to treat PMS, alprazolam has been shown to increase food intake. The present study investigated the acute effects of alprazolam (0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 mg) on food intake in 19 women with PMS. Each dose was tested once during the premenstrual phase and again during the postmenstrual phase. Each session, before drug administration, participants completed a Food Desirability Questionnaire and selected lunch, which was consumed 3.5 h after drug administration. Desire for foods containing fat were significantly increased premenstrually compared to postmenstrually, while desires for carbohydrate (CHO) alone and beverages did not change as a function of menstrual cycle phase. Cognitive Restraint scores predicted the amount of food consumed, i. e. restrained eaters consumed less food at lunch. Alprazolam significantly increased food intake, specifically fat, premenstrually compared to postmenstrually. Restrained eaters consumed 26% more calories premenstrually following 0.75 mg alprazolam relative to placebo, whereas unrestrained eaters consumed 9% more calories. Thus, women with PMS, particularly restrained eaters, are more sensitive to the food-intake increasing effects of alprazolam premenstrually.     

Validation of a scale for the assessment of food cravings among smokers

Weight gain associated with smoking cessation impedes attempts to quit smoking and may lead to obesity. One factor that might contribute to weight gain is cravings for sweet or rich foods. To date, no reliable measure exists for evaluating these cravings. The purpose of the current study was to validate an assessment of craving for sweet or rich foods for use among smokers. With a sample of 385 smokers enrolled in a clinical trial for smoking cessation, the study examined the factor structure, internal consistency, and convergent and predictive validity of the Questionnaire on Craving for Sweet or Rich Foods (QCSRF). A two-factor model best represented the data. Factor 1 contained six items assessing perceptions about the ability of sweet or rich foods to relieve negative affect and about self-control over eating. Factor 2 contained three items assessing the intensity of cravings. Both factors demonstrated high internal consistency and good convergent and predictive validity. These results suggest the QCSRF is a reliable and valid measure for examining cravings for sweet or rich foods among smokers.     

Craving for sweet carbohydrate and fat-rich foods – possible triggers and impact on nutritional intake

Summary  This paper presents a review of the literature pertaining to the measurement and prevalence of, and triggers for, cravings for sweet carbohydrate and fat-rich foods, and considers the impact of such cravings on nutrient intake. Difficulties in defining the construct and measurement of food cravings are discussed, and recent progress highlighted in the measurement arena by the development of two psychometric instruments that appear to have good validity and reliability. With regards to triggers for cravings for sweet carbohydrate and fat-rich foods, most studies have focused on negative mood state. While it is likely that a variety of food-related cues may influence cravings ( e.g. the smell, sight, taste, and mouth-feel or texture of food, as well as thoughts of and images of food), this is an area that has received relatively little attention in the scientific literature. Similarly, there is a lack of information about the impact of cravings on nutrient intake. Preliminary data indicate that, at least for older people, cravers' nutrient intake meets or exceeds the recommended daily amounts for most nutrients. However, energy intake is higher among cravers compared with non-cravers, and a greater proportion of their energy comes from carbohydrates, especially sugars. This may have an adverse effect on subsequent weight gain. Indeed, these preliminary data found cravers to have a higher body mass index than non-cravers.     

Changes in mood after carbohydrate consumption among obese individuals

Two groups of obese individuals who consume excessive calories primarily as snack foods have been identified. Carbohydrate cravers consume most or all snacks as carbohydrate-rich foods despite the equal accessibility of protein-rich snacks. Noncarbohydrate cravers consume about equal amounts of protein- and carbohydrate-rich snack foods. Using standardized self-report questionnaires, we measured mood before and 2 h after consumption of a high-carbohydrate lunch (104 g CHO). Responses to the meal differed significantly: noncarbohydrate cravers reported feeling considerably less alert, more fatigued and sleepy, while carbohydrate cravers described little or no change in these aspects of mood. Moreover, noncarbohydrate cravers experienced an increase in depression, while carbohydrate cravers reported feeling less depressed. Findings suggest that snacking habits of obese individuals may be related to subsequent mood states.     

Vagus nerve stimulation confuses appetite: comment on Bodenlos et al. (2007)

In a recent research report, [Bodenlos et al. 2007. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) acutely alters food craving in adults with depression. Appetite, 48, 145-153] concluded that, in depressed patients, acute activation of a device for VNS caused a significant change in cravings specifically for sweet foods. We argue that there is no evidence for any effect on food cravings. Rather, the findings indicate that VNS confuses the patient's appetite for sweet foods: this might result from contextually unexpected internal afferent signals generated by the vagal stimulation. Unfortunately, their multiple regression of potential predictive variables cannot be interpreted reliably. The concept is interesting, but the design, analysis and interpretation should be reconsidered.     

Effects of eating behavior on mood: A review of the literature

The literature focusing on the use of food as a regulator of a negative mood state is reviewed. This literature reveals that individuals experiencing a negative mood state arising from disorders ranging from tobacco withdrawal to premenstrual symptoms make use of carbohydrate ingestion, especially simple carbohydrates, to provide a temporary lifting of mood. However, other evidence suggests that some individuals may obtain a more permanent control of their negative mood state by eliminating simple carbohydrates from their diet. While the literature is consistent in demonstrating that carbohydrate consumption can alter a negative mood state, the underlying mechanism mediating this relationship is unknown. © 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Same genetic components underlie different measures of sweet taste preference

BACKGROUND: Sweet taste preferences are measured by several often correlated measures. OBJECTIVE: We examined the relative proportions of genetic and environmental effects on sweet taste preference indicators and their mutual correlations. DESIGN: A total of 663 female twins (324 complete pairs, 149 monozygous and 175 dizygous pairs) aged 17-80 y rated the liking and intensity of a 20% (wt/vol) sucrose solution, reported the liking and the use-frequency of 6 sweet foods (sweet desserts, sweets, sweet pastry, ice cream, hard candy, and chocolate), and completed a questionnaire on cravings of sweet foods. The estimated contributions of genetic factors, environmental factors shared by a twin pair, and environmental factors unique to each twin individual to the variance and covariance of the traits were obtained with the use of linear structural equation modeling. RESULTS: Approximately half of the variation in liking for sweet solution and liking and use-frequency of sweet foods (49-53%) was explained by genetic factors, whereas the rest of the variation was due to environmental factors unique to each twin individual. Sweet taste preference-related traits were correlated. Tetravariate modeling showed that the correlation between liking for the sweet solution and liking for sweet foods was due to genetic factors (genetic r = 0.27). Correlations between liking, use-frequency, and craving for sweet foods were due to both genetic and unshared environmental factors. CONCLUSION: Detailed information on the associations between preference measures is an important intermediate goal in the determination of the genetic components affecting sweet taste preferences.     

Food cravings and food cue responding across the menstrual cycle in a non-eating disordered sample

The study aim was to examine changes in food cue-elicited cravings and the macronutrient content of craved foods across menstrual cycle phases in a non-eating disordered sample. Thirty-five college females attended laboratory sessions in the late follicular and late luteal phases. In each session they completed a measure of state food craving before and after exposure to preferred, high fat/high sugar chocolate candy. Candy consumption following cue exposure was measured during an ad libitum "taste test." Additionally, participants rated their desire to eat foods differing systematically and significantly in macronutrient content. Ovulation was confirmed with luteinizing hormone detection kits. Results show that whereas the food cue increased cravings, this effect did not differ between cycle phases examined. The macronutrient content of foods desired also did not differ significantly between cycle phases, however, a non-significant trend suggested that high fat/high complex carbohydrate and low fat/high protein foods were more strongly desired in the late luteal phase. Amount of chocolate candy eaten did not differ between cycle phases. These results suggest that cravings for high fat/high sugar foods do not differ between menstrual cycle phases examined, whereas cravings for other foods may fluctuate across cycle phases in non-eating disordered women.     

Gustation as a determinant of ingestion: methodological issues

To better characterize the relationship between taste function and dietary intake, measures of taste sensitivity, perceived intensity and preference for sweet (sucrose) and bitter (urea) stimuli were assessed in 35 healthy adults using aqueous and food tastants. Observations were then correlated with the proportions of calories contributed by carbohydrate, protein, fat and foods characterized by subjects as predominantly sweet or bitter on 7-day diet records. No significant association was noted among single measures of taste function and any of the five intake parameters, although taste profiles comprised of multiple taste ratings accounted for approximately a third of the variance in sweet and bitter calorie consumption. Levels of nutrient intake could not be predicted at better than chance levels using taste responses. Taste function plays a subordinate role to other determinants of food and nutrient intake, although taste profiles may facilitate the prediction of preferred tastes of diets.     

Sweet preference predicts mood altering effect of and impaired control over eating sweet foods

The purpose of the present study was to examine association between hedonic response to sweet taste and a mood altering effect associated with eating sweet foods and impaired control over eating sweets. Participants (n=163, 39% males) rated a series of sucrose solutions for intensity of sweetness and palatability and completed a newly developed 12-item Sweet Taste Questionnaire (STQ). It was shown that STQ identifies two factors in the individual's attitude towards sweet foods: sensitivity to the mood altering effect of sweets and impaired control over eating sweet foods. Individuals preferring the taste of the strongest offered sucrose concentration reported a stronger mood altering effect associated with eating of sweet foods and were more likely to have an impaired control over eating sweets than the rest of the group. Women generally had higher scores on both factors compared to men. The results of the present study support the hypothesis that hedonic response to sweet taste is associated with elevated sensitivity to mood altering effects of sweet foods and impaired control over eating sweets.     

Clinical Profiles of Premenstrual Experiences Among Women Having Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS): Affective Changes Predominate and Relate to Social and Occupational Functioning

Our objective for this study was to examine symptom severity among women suffering from premenstrual syndrome as well as associations between symptom severity and impairment. In a one-cycle prospective study, various premenstrual symptoms of 91 women were assessed. Tension and irritability were the most severe symptoms. Headache, irritability, self-deprecating thoughts, and depressed mood were the symptoms that were subjectively rated as the most burdensome. Significant correlations were found between the mean premenstrual severity and functional impairment. The severity of premenstrual affective symptoms was related to social impairment. The severity of psychological symptoms was correlated with occupational impairment. These findings confirm the prominent role of premenstrual affective symptoms and support classification guidelines focusing on both affective and physical changes.     

Body mass index moderates gaze orienting biases and pupil diameter to high and low calorie food images

The primary goal of this study was to examine eye gaze behavior to different kinds of food images in individuals differing in BMI status. Eye-tracking methods were used to examine gaze and pupil responses while normal weight and overweight women freely viewed pairs of different food images: high calorie sweet foods, high calorie savory foods, and low calorie foods. Self-report measures of hunger, state and trait cravings, and restrained eating were also obtained. Results revealed orienting biases to low calorie foods and decreases in pupil diameter to high calorie sweet foods relative to low calorie foods in the overweight group. Groups did not differ in the average amount of time spent gazing at the different image types. Furthermore, increased state cravings were associated with larger pupil diameters to high calorie savory foods, especially in individuals with lower BMIs. In contrast, restrained eating scores were associated with a decreased orienting bias to high calorie sweet foods in the high BMI group. In conclusion, BMI status appears to influence gaze parameters that are less susceptible to cognitive control. Results suggest that overweight individuals, especially those who diet, have negative implicit attitudes toward high calorie foods, especially sweets.     

Are energy drinks contributing to the obesity epidemic?

The consumption of energy drinks containing sucrose and caffeine is increasing worldwide. Ten healthy women aged 18 to 22 years and fasted overnight were randomly allocated to a standardised dose of sucrose either as an "energy" drink (containing sucrose and caffeine) or lemonade on the first day and then crossed over to the alternative drink on a second day. For thirty minutes before and thirty minutes after drinking oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production were measured in the resting subject breath-by-breath by indirect calorimetry and the rates of carbohydrate and fat oxidation calculated. Energy drink consumption apparently caused increased carbohydrate oxidation (P = 0.004) and reduced lipid oxidation (P = 0.004) compared to lemonade. The longer term effects of combined caffeine and sucrose intake, particularly in sedentary individuals, on metabolism and body fatness needs further examination.     

Invisible fats: Sensory assessment of sugar/fat mixtures

Fifty normal-weight college females tasted and rated 15 stimuli resembling cake frostings and composed of sucrose (20-77% weight/weight), butter (15-35% weight/weight), polydextrose and distilled water. Sweetness intensity ratings rose as a function of sucrose levels. In contrast, ratings of fat content were only poorly related to stimulus fat. Rather, the perception of fat depended on stimulus texture and was a combined function of fat, polydextrose and water. Increasing sucrose levels suppressed fatness ratings: sweeter stimuli were judged to be lower in fat content. The finding that sugar masks the sensory assessment of fats in some solid foods may help explain why so many sweet, high-fat desserts are commonly viewed as carbohydrate-rich foods. The acceptability of the frostings was a combined function of both sucrose and fat levels. Hedonic response profiles to sucrose solutions in water predicted sensory preferences for sweet frostings containing 15% fat, but not those containing 35% fat.     

Food preferences in human obesity: Carbohydrates versus fats

A large clinical sample of obese men and women were asked for a self-generated list of ten favorite foods. The lists were characterized by frequent instances of foods that are major nutrient sources of fat in the American diet. While obese men listed mainly protein/fat sources (meat dishes) among their favorite foods, obese women tended to list predominantly carbohydrate/fat sources (doughnuts, cookies, cake) and foods that were sweet. There was no evidence that selective preferences for a single macronutrient, carbohydrate, were a standard feature of human obesity. Rather, preferences for major nutrient sources of fat as opposed to carbohydrate may be a primary characteristic of human obesity syndromes.     

Is sweetness addictive?

Summary  The notion that sweetness is 'addictive' endures in the scientific literature and in the popular press. The most common targets of food cravings and addictions are energy-dense foods that are sweet, high in fat, or both. In clinical studies, the consumption of sweet and high-fat foods has been selectively reduced by opiate antagonists, suggesting a link between hedonic pleasure response and the brain systems of reward. Recent brain imaging studies have further implicated the dopamine system in mediating the pleasure response to food as well as a range of addictive behaviours. However, suggestions that sugar and fat have a permanent impact on the neurobiology of food preference are in sharp contrast with the view that the vast majority of food addictions are simply a matter of misattribution. Dietary restraint, coupled with ambiguous attitudes towards good-tasting but energy-dense foods, may lead consumers to claim that some aspects of eating behaviour are beyond their control. This distinction between addiction and attribution has implications for obesity-related lawsuits. The chief attraction of addiction theory for the plaintiff's counsel lies in the claim of diminished personal responsibility and abrogation of free choice. However, sugar and sweets do not appear to meet the current criteria for substance dependence as formulated in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – Fourth Edition. Examining scientific literature on sweet food 'addictions' and their putative links to the obesity epidemic is the topic of this review.     

Diet composition alters the acceptance of fat by rats

The acceptance of dietary fat by rats is influenced by changes in fat digestion and metabolism. In these experiments, rats were fed diets that differed in fat, carbohydrate and fiber content, and the acceptance of fat was measured. Rats fed a high fat (HF) diet ate more corn oil in 30-min or 6-h tests than did rats fed an isocaloric high carbohydrate (HC) diet. This effect was seen after the diets were switched and rats retested. Differences in dietary fiber between the isocaloric HF and HC diets did not account for this effect because rats fed HF diets, either high or low in fiber content, drank more oil than rats fed the HC diet. Rats fed the HF diet with added carbohydrate drank less oil than rats fed the HF diet, and the same amount of oil as rats fed the HC diet. Compared with rats fed the HC diet, rats fed the HF diet drank more oil in a two-bottle preference test with sucrose or when mixed with sucrose in a single-bottle test. Rats offered a variety of fats, sugars or other test foods, ate more nutritive liquid fats and some solid fats, but did not eat more sugar or other items if they were fed the HF diet rather than the HC diet. These studies taken together strongly suggest that rats fed a high fat diet show a greater acceptance of fat compared with rats fed a high carbohydrate diet.