Proposal for the Validation of the Italian Food Composition Database

The aim of this project is to validate the nutrient composition data presented in the book “Food Composition Database for Epidemiological Studies in Italy” and to confirm the working methodology, based on the “combination method” described by Greenfield and Southgate (1991). This database was compiled deriving 35% of data from the food composition tables of the National Institute of Nutrition, Rome; the remaining data were obtained from other Italian and foreign tables and from scientific papers. In addition, some values were calculated or estimated. Food composition data presented in the book will be compared with ad hoc chemical laboratory analyses. A sample of frequently consumed Italian food items and of items whose composition was totally “borrowed” from foreign sources will be chemically analysed and the results will be compared with the values included in the database. A specific sampling plan will be developed. The following parameters will be measured for each food item: weight, moisture, macronutrients, some vitamins and minerals. Laboratory quality control will be established a priori. Due to the complexity and the cost of the study, details are still open to debate and suggestions.     

Development and validation of specific carotene food composition tables for use in nutritional epidemiologic studies for Japanese populations.

Assessment of dietary intake is important to understand the relationship between nutrition and health. Although the role of specific carotenoids has recently been of great interest, there are no comprehensive food composition tables for intake of specific carotenoids in Japan. We have therefore developed a new carotene food composition table that shows the alpha- and beta-carotene values based on an extensive review of the literature (FCT1). Using a 14- or 28-day diet record data of sample population (n=188), we selected 12 important foods to two carotene intakes. We analyzed the carotene contents of the foods, and developed the another composition table in which the food contents were replaced by the analytical values (FCT2). Carotene intakes of the population were significantly different between these two composition tables. However, the correlations between the dietary intake and the serum concentrations were almost identical, i.e., partial correlations using FCT1/FCT2 were 0.32/0.30 and 0.33/0.36 for alpha-carotene and 0.28/0.28 and 0.30/0.29 for beta-carotene in men and women. The similar correlations with the serum concentrations may indicate an comparable value for ranking individuals between the two tables. However, the results were inconclusive for the estimation of absolute intakes.     

Comparison of nutrients in the food composition tables available in the nine European countries participating in EPIC. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition

Food composition tables were studied from nine European countries participating in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Great Britain, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain and Sweden. They were compared from the point view of availability, definition, analytical methods, and mode of expression of the nutrients of interest for EPIC, and it was seen that most of the nutrients in the tables are analysed and expressed in a compatible way. For some nutrients, however, common methods and definitions (folate, dietary fibre), or modes of expression (energy, protein, carbohydrates, carotenes, vitamin A and E) have not yet been agreed upon, so values are not comparable. For vitamin C a wide range of values are found due to the high natural variation in foods. For compiled tables, an additional problem is the use of several sources which may mean that the nutritional values are not comparable within the same table; and these values cannot be converted if the source is not stated. In addition, some tables were compiled using food composition values produced over 20 years ago with outdated analytical methods. In view of the inconsistent values for some nutrients and due to the large amount of foods reported within EPIC, it was concluded that standardised food composition tables have to be developed for the nine European countries involved in EPIC in order to provide comparable nutrient intake data.     

Creation of a Database for the Calculation of Nutrient Intake Over Time

In 1987–1988, the first Dutch National Food Consumption Survey (DNFCS) was carried out; similar surveys were conducted in 1992 and 1997–1998. In each survey, food consumption data were converted into energy and nutrients using the most up-to-date version of the Dutch food composition table. To enable valid comparisons of nutrient intake over time specific food composition tables (Trend Table-1 (TT-1) for DNFCS-1 and TT-2 for DNFCS-2) were created. In these tables, for 20 nutrients, the composition of 550 selected food items was compared and reasons for differences were investigated. The food composition table used for DNFCS-3 (last update in 1997) was the reference table. To avoid artificial changes, differences as a consequence of improvements of the database were corrected in retrospect; real changes in the food composition remained intact. In TT-1 nearly 3500 modifications were made. Most of them concerned the composition of macronutrients. About 40% of the corrections arose from more and better analytical data; 6% were missing values. In both TTs many changes were related to the fatty acid composition of foods and were a consequence of changing the expression of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat into fatty acids. In TT-2 more than 2800 modifications were made; besides changes in the fatty acid composition, about 20% reflected improvements in the quality of data, and 16% were missing values. Changes in the different food groups and consequences of the modifications are discussed in more detail.     

Computerized nutrient data bases: I. Comparison of nutrient analysis systems

Food composition tables now being compiled include a wide range of food items and nutrients. This trend is paralleled in the development of computer-stored nutrient data bases that are being utilized for numerous applications, such as cost-optimized menu planning, dietary record analysis, and nutritional assessment. In 1976, several participants at the National Nutrient Data Bank Conference agreed to cooperate in a comparative study to analyze a common one-day dietary record. The results of three subsequent analyses indicated that the values for nutrients varied considerably even after elimination of coding judgments relative to portion size and selection of food items. The results of the study indicated the need for an assessment methodology suitable for evaluating performance of a computerized nutrient analysis system.     

From food databases to dietary assessment: A beginning to an end approach for quality nutrition data

Aim: This paper reviews the historical basis of modern assessment of nutrient composition—from food composition tables and the transition to nutrient databases. Method: A narrative review was formed beginning with the first, very crude printed food composition tables, to electronic food databases and continuing to how dietary assessment is currently impacted by state‐of‐the‐art techniques and what that means for food composition. Results: A plethora of studies, especially international studies, have utilised information from food composition via nutrient databases and software designed to extract food composition data into relevant files for dietary assessment. The United States Department of Agriculture's nutrient data bank is widely used, even internationally, and concerns about its appropriateness in other locales needs to be addressed. A number of countries have developed food composition databases unique to the foods of their population. International studies realised a number of problems related to inconsistencies between countries. Essentially, high‐quality food composition data requires up‐to‐date information on food supply, supplement use and potential food contaminants. Food composition tables form the basis for data published on nutrient intakes of individuals via food diaries, food recalls and surveys and, in addition, nutrient claims for some food products; thus, accuracy and reliability are paramount. New tools in dietary assessment, such as food photography, make nutrient assessment more widely available, requiring even more attention paid to the accuracy of food composition databases. Conclusions: The globalisation of food sources and the need for continuity regarding dietary data present challenges needing reconciliation. International concepts for food composition tables have evolved to address these problems.     

Adequacy of a food composition database to estimate fat and fatty acid intake

This work examined the adequacy of the only food composition database available in Croatia to estimate fat and fatty acid intake. A 7-day food record with 39 participants was carried out. In addition to Croatian food composition tables (FCT1), the Swedish food tables (FCT2) were used to convert food records into quantities of total fat and saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, respectively. The subjects simultaneously collected duplicates of all consumed food. The chemical analysis of duplicates to determine total fat and fatty acids included extraction of fat, followed by methylation of fatty acids and GC analysis. According to the comparison of methods, FCT2 are a better predictor of fat and fatty acid intake than FCT1 because of their closer agreement with analysed values. The correlation coefficients imply that both food tables estimate most of these nutrients similarly to a reference method. However, food records combined with either of the food tables could not predict intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids by men. In order to improve applicability of FCT1 in dietary surveys concerned with fat and fatty acids, the next issue should include changes in respect to an identified systematic error, as well as a greater choice of food items and their varieties. Accuracy of food records based on FCT1 could further be increased with subjects giving details on recipe ingredients, analysis of missing foods, etc.     

Adequacy of a food composition database to estimate fat and fatty acid intake

This work examined the adequacy of the only food composition database available in Croatia to estimate fat and fatty acid intake. A 7-day food record with 39 participants was carried out. In addition to Croatian food composition tables (FCT1), the Swedish food tables (FCT2) were used to convert food records into quantities of total fat and saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, respectively. The subjects simultaneously collected duplicates of all consumed food. The chemical analysis of duplicates to determine total fat and fatty acids included extraction of fat, followed by methylation of fatty acids and GC analysis. According to the comparison of methods, FCT2 are a better predictor of fat and fatty acid intake than FCT1 because of their closer agreement with analysed values. The correlation coefficients imply that both food tables estimate most of these nutrients similarly to a reference method. However, food records combined with either of the food tables could not predict intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids by men. In order to improve applicability of FCT1 in dietary surveys concerned with fat and fatty acids, the next issue should include changes in respect to an identified systematic error, as well as a greater choice of food items and their varieties. Accuracy of food records based on FCT1 could further be increased with subjects giving details on recipe ingredients, analysis of missing foods, etc.     

The evolution of food composition databases in Australia: Applying data from 1944 to 2007 to current day dietary records

Pre 1980, Australian food composition data were printed tables and based largely on overseas values. Improvements in analytical methods, available technology and changes to the food supply led to a transition to electronic and later online databases. Currently dietary analysis of food intake data can be completed using food composition databases with very few users drawing on printed food composition tables. This study aimed to examine the nutrient output from different food composition data tables from 1944 to 2007 and describe the challenges faced when applying it to a present day dietary intake dataset from 2013. A two-step process was applied to analyse baseline food record data from the feasibility study of an interdisciplinary lifestyle intervention trial using food composition databases from 1944, 1948, 1954, 1968, 1977, 1991, 1999 and 2007. Differences in food data across all time points were determined with 2007 as the comparator database. Data were available for protein, fat, carbohydrate, thiamin, vitamin C, calcium and iron across the eight databases however nutrient data were not compared due to a lack of food matches between the databases. Differences in reported food composition data over time emphasizes the importance of using timely food composition data matched to the time period of the dietary intake data.     

Folate status in Germany 1997-2000

Data about folate intake and blood values of the German population, published between 1997 and 2000, have been reviewed. Median folate intake is about 250 micrograms/day in the adult population, which indicates a high likelihood of inadequate intake when compared to the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) of 320 micrograms/day. Only a few studies have evaluated serum and erythrocyte folate or plasma homocysteine as a marker of folate status. The most representative data show that 25% of German women of childbearing age have an inadequate recent folate intake. Only 13.3% of the women have red blood cell folate values above the critical value of 400 micrograms/day established by Daly et al (1995). Folic acid fortification of food is shown to be responsible for about 25% of folate intake in the German child and adolescent population in one study. If we extrapolate these data to the general population, folic acid fortification could be the explanation for the differences observed between folate intake and blood values. The discrepancy might also be explained by slight inaccuracies in food composition tables. Folate intake from fortified food or from supplements is not taken into account in most of the studies, which is a variable that can lead to confusion. Nutrition surveys should adapt official composition tables for local food patterns, and include fortified commercial foods, in order to make folate intake data more accurate. However, representative serum and erythrocyte folate values are lacking for most age groups. Before taking public health measures concerning folate fortification of food, the real folate status of the German population should be established.     

Using database values to determine food density

Estimating food weight from data on food volume requires that density of the food be known. When both volume and weight are published on food tables the density can be calculated, however for many foods volume data are not available on the food table. Using a camera image of food to document dietary intake by automatically matching the food to a database entry requires that food volume be calculated and food weight estimated. This paper discusses some considerations when using USDA food tables to calculate composition of foods documented by camera image, as well as thoughts on measuring food volume and the potential for developing default values for density using available food volume data.     

Food composition tables: laboratory comparative analysis

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the agreement between macronutrients and food energy values analyzed in laboratory and data of food composition tables and software available in Brazil. METHODS: Eleven types of food were analyzed totaling 701 samples. Student's t-test was performed consisting of the comparison between the mean values obtained in laboratory and the unique constant value of each table or software at 5% confidence level. RESULTS: It was noted that depending on the type of food, nutrient and table or software selected for comparison, there were significant statistically differences between laboratory and tables and software data. Concerning the studied types of food it was observed a trend of overestimating protein and carbohydrate content in two tables while carbohydrate content was overestimated in a third table. One of the software programs showed overestimated lipid content and, consequently, the total energetic values while a second software program underestimated all nutrients when compared to laboratory results. CONCLUSIONS: The results showed it is essential to create a Brazilian food composition table from laboratory data to assure more accurate data.     

Contents of essential and toxic mineral elements in Swedish market-basket diets in 1987.

Market baskets containing sixty food items included in the average Swedish diet were purchased from three shops in four major Swedish cities during autumn 1987. Food items were selected on the basis of food-balance-sheet data. Freeze-dried homogenates representative of each city were analysed for twelve essential or toxic mineral elements. The energy content of the market baskets (11.5 MJ) corresponded to the reference value for male adults. At this energy level the contents of calcium (1180 mg), magnesium (300 mg), iron (16 mg), zinc (12 mg) and selenium (44 micrograms) were above or close to the Swedish recommended daily intakes. The contents of manganese (3.7 mg) and molybdenum (150 micrograms) were within and that of copper (1.2 mg) was below the safe and adequate intake values given in the US recommended dietary allowance (Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council, 1989). The content of nickel was 82 micrograms. The contents of lead (17 micrograms), cadmium (12 micrograms) and mercury (1.8 micrograms) in the daily diet were low compared with the provisional tolerable intakes set by the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives (World Health Organization, 1972, 1989). The market-basket contents of Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn calculated from values in the Swedish food composition tables were close to the analysed values, indicating that the Swedish food tables provide relevant information for the estimation of the dietary supply of these elements.     

Development of nutrient databases for epidemiological studies in Taiwan

The nutrient and related databases are essential for calculating intake values in epidemiological studies. To suit our research needs, we have developed an integrated management system not only for processing individual dietary questionnaires including 24-hour recalls, food records and Chinese food frequency questionnaires (CFFQ), but also for maintaining and tracking updated food composition databases. The recall and record calculation system (Normal University Food and Nutrient Calculation System: NUCAL system) considers date of recall/record, number of days and meal separations. The CFFQ editing system (CFFQES system) contains the management of food list, and frequency and portion size selections to facilitate processing the various versions of CFFQ. Since the extension of many bioactive compounds including polyphenols, pollutants and carcinogens in foods and water is considered by epidemiological hypotheses, limitation of current food composition tables needs to be noticed and improved. Laboratory analyses are the foundation of food databases, more resources and efforts are urgently needed for analysing the local food items. In practical uses of efficient data processing procedures, the multiple grouping and nomenclature systems need further attention in the future. Nutrient databases need multidisciplinary efforts and play the key role for the success of epidemiological studies.     

The Design and Development of a Food Composition Database for an Electronic Tool to Assess Food Intake in New Caledonian Families

The food environment in New Caledonia is undergoing a transition, with movement away from traditional diets towards processed and discretionary foods and beverages. This study aimed to develop an up-to-date food composition database that could be used to analyze food and nutritional intake data of New Caledonian children and adults. Development of this database occurred in three phases: Phase 1, updating and expanding the number of food items to represent current food supply; Phase 2, refining the database items and naming and assigning portion size images for food items; Phase 3, ensuring comprehensive nutrient values for all foods, including saturated fat and total sugar. The final New Caledonian database comprised a total of 972 food items, with 40 associated food categories and 25 nutrient values and 615 items with portion size images. To improve the searchability of the database, the names of 593 food items were shortened and synonyms or alternate spelling were included for 462 foods. Once integrated into a mobile app-based multiple-pass 24-h recall tool, named iRecall.24, this country-specific food composition database would support the assessment of food and nutritional intakes of families in New Caledonia, in a cross-sectional and longitudinal manner, and with translational opportunities for use across the wider Pacific region.     

LATINFOODS: Food composition activities in Latin America (2004–2006)

The Latin American Network of Food Data System (LATINFOODS), as part of the International Network of Food Data Systems (INFOODS), was established in 1984 and has been co-sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). During the FAO/SLAN/LATINFOODS meeting on food composition in November 2003, in Acapulco, Mexico, the administrative rules of LATINFOODS were approved and the regional work plan on food composition 2004–2006 was elaborated. In accordance with this plan of work, the following activities have been carried out: organization of the Second Electronic Conference FAO/LATINFOODS “Evaluation of data quality for database and food composition tables”; elaboration of informative material about LATINFOODS with FAO financial support; update of Latin American Regional Food Composition Database and Regional Table by Subregional Data Center for South America (SAFOODS); and various national activities such as dissemination of the regional and national activities, elaboration of research projects, generation and compilation of new data, publication of tables, creation/enlargement of food composition tables on the Internet and elaboration of a sampling manual. Future activities of LATINFOODS will include translation of the food compilation form from Portuguese to Spanish and producing a sampling manual for Latin America. It is important to emphasize that continuous, dynamic, cooperative work among all participant countries of the network is essential in order for LATINFOODS to disseminate data about foods consumed in Latin America. Activities aiming to facilitate collection of analytical data and to provide adequate procedures must be prioritized. These activities must target the improvement of the quality of food composition information.     

Development of substituted fatty acid food composition table for the use in nutritional epidemiologic studies for Japanese populations: its methodological backgrounds and the evaluation.

Results of dietary assessment are influenced by quality of food composition tables used for nutrient calculation. The Japanese food composition table has considerable missing values for fatty acid compositions. Substitution is often used for filling missing values. We examined reliability of the following 4 major substitution methods using available values of arbitrarily selected 83 sets of foods from the published fatty acid composition table of Japanese foods: by a different part of the same specie, by a similar specie, by a same specie in the United States' Department of Agriculture food composition table, and by recipe. The mean correlation coefficients of food pairs were 0.97, 0.96, 0.84, and 0.80 respectively. Next, we substituted fatty acid compositions for the 794 missing foods using the 4 substitution methods, and developed the table with 1245 foods including those listed in the original (non-substituted) fatty acid composition table. Lastly, we calculated fatty acid intake levels with the original (non-substituted) and the developed (substituted) tables using 28- or 14-day dietary records of 211 men and women as a sample data, and compared the results. The intakes of all five fatty acid groups increased. The increase was most marked in saturated fatty acids (26% in men and 31% in women in crude values). As a consequence, polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratio decreased from 1.15 to 1.01 in men and from 1.13 to 0.96 in women. The use of the developed fatty acid food composition table may increase the reliability on nutrition-disease association in future nutritional epidemiologic studies for Japanese populations.     

Food predictors of plasma beta-carotene and alpha-tocopherol: validation of a food frequency questionnaire

Nutrient intakes from a food frequency questionnaire are usually calculated as the product of frequency of intake and nutrient composition of the food, summed over the food items. This involves assumptions about the accuracy of recording, food composition data, stability during storage and preparation, and bioavailability. This usual method of calculation was compared with one using empirical weights derived by multivariate linear regression. Food intakes reported on a food frequency questionnaire by Boston, Massachusetts, area subjects in 1982-1985 were used to predict plasma levels of beta-carotene among 370 male and female nonsmokers and plasma levels of alpha-tocopherol among 339 male and female nonusers of vitamin supplements. Nutrient intake computed using empirical weights yielded a significant correlation with plasma beta-carotene (r = 0.43, p = 0.0001), similar to the correlation using nutrient intake calculated from food composition tables (r = 0.38, p = 0.0001). However, the use of empirical weights significantly improved the correlation of vitamin E intake with plasma alpha-tocopherol levels (r = 0.32, p = 0.0001), compared with the weak correlation obtained using the food composition table method to calculate intake (r = 0.16). The results support the validity of published food composition data used to compute carotenoid intake and illustrate the potential utility of empirically derived weights for foods to predict plasma levels of some nutrients.