髋臼上方置钉骨盆外固定的应用解剖

目的:为髋臼上方置钉进行骨盆外固定手术提供应用解剖学参考资料.方法:对20例40侧尸体骨盆的髂前下棘区域进行观察测量,获取髂前下棘与股动脉、股神经、股外侧皮神经、旋髂深动脉等毗邻血管神经的距离.对髋臼上置钉的钉道进行测量,获取钉道的长度、宽度,钉道与髋臼边缘及坐骨大切迹的距离等.所得数据按性别分组进行统计学处理.结果:髂前下棘为股直肌起始部,表面为髂肌覆盖,缝匠肌由外上至内下斜行越过髂前下棘外下方.男性股动脉位于髂前下棘内侧(27.54±3.53)mm,女性为(27.15±0.81)mm;男性股神经位于髂前下棘内侧(17.61±3.47)mm,女性为(19.26±4.21)mm.男性股外侧皮神经位于髂前下棘外侧(23.24±5.33)mm,女性为(17.82±3.26)mm;男性旋髂深动脉位于髂前下棘上方(16.26±1.77)mm,女性为(14.06±2.16)mm.男性髋臼上钉道长度为(147.76±7.39)mm,女性为(142.75±6.36)mm;男性钉道位于髋臼上方(25.10±4.43)mm,女性为(19.35±3.54)mm;男性钉道位于坐骨大切迹上方(25.01±3.61)mm,女性为(21.34±3.17)mm.结论:髋臼上方置钉骨盆外固定手术,应选取在腹股沟韧带外侧1/4下方约1 cm处作一平行切口,采用纵形钝性劈开髂肌的方式,以套筒保护下在髂前下棘处置入固定钉,避免损伤周围组织.由髂前下棘到髂后上棘间的钉道为一完整连续的骨性钉道,可为骨盆外固定提供足够的钉道长度和固定强度.     

经皮逆行髋臼前柱螺钉的应用解剖与临床

目的 应用优化计算机辅助解剖测量技术,为经皮逆行髋臼前柱螺钉内固定术提供解剖学基础.方法 取骨盆CT数据40份,进行精确的三维重建得到骨盆模型.首先为使用单螺钉的内固定方法设计特定的最优化目标函数,并在约束条件下自动计算其最佳经皮逆行螺钉位置.统计分析测量结果,并设计解剖测量参考体系.结果 经皮逆行髋臼前柱螺钉的入钉点在耻骨上支耻骨结节与髂耻隆起中点处的闭孔嵴上,出钉点在髂前上下棘之间切迹与坐骨大切迹连线中点上方,其连线即为髋臼前柱纵轴.该线与弓状线接近平行,其进针方向与出钉点-髂前下棘连线为(42.84±2.61)°,与出钉点-髂结节连线为(31.96±2.58)°.螺钉骨内段长度为(101.12±7.28)mm.结论 优化计算机辅助解剖测量是一种非常有效的测量技术,克服了传统手工实物解剖测量的很多缺点,便于设计解剖测量参考体系和制定临床手术方案.经皮逆行髋臼螺钉技术可用于髋臼前柱骨折的临床治疗.     

髋臼前柱螺钉内固定的最优化计算机辅助测量

目的:研究专门的最优化计算机辅助解剖测量技术,为髋臼前柱拉力螺钉内固定提供解剖学基础。方法:取骨盆CT数据40份,进行精确的三维重建得到80个半骨盆模型。根据临床手术需要,对螺钉到骨边界的加权距离进行动态采样作为最优化目标函数,在约束条件下自动迭代修改螺钉两个端点位置,达到最佳位置,并设计新的解剖测量参考体系。结果:髋臼前柱拉力螺钉的入钉点在髂前上、下棘之间切迹与坐骨大切迹连线中点上方(15.72±2.71) mm处;其进针方向与入钉点-髂前下棘连线呈(42.84±2.61)°,与入钉点-髂结节连线呈(31.96±2.58)°;螺钉骨内段长度为(101.12±7.2)mm。结论:最优化计算机辅助解剖测量是一种非常有效的新测量技术,方便设计新的解剖测量参考体系和临床手术方案。     

髋臼上区域置钉安全范围的影像学研究

目的　探究髋臼上区域螺钉的进钉位置、角度以及安全范围。 方法　收集男女骨盆CT数据各50例,利用Mimics软件重建髋臼上置钉区域三维模型（髂前下棘至髂后上棘方向）。同一横断面上,通道狭窄处中点连线方向确定为螺钉方向,沿该方向每2.5 mm为一层,逐层测量安全范围相关指标。在1/2高度层面放置中心钉,测量中心钉进钉点与髂前下棘的位置关系及螺钉方向,在水平面和矢状面上移动钉尖,测量安全倾角范围。 结果　髋臼上骨通道存在前、后两狭窄点,不同层面其宽度不同,从下至上,前狭窄由窄变宽再变窄,后狭窄逐层增宽。螺钉通道中间层较宽,上下层较窄;中心通道宽度90%的男、女性分别大于7 mm和6 mm;进钉约50 mm至前狭窄,70 mm至坐骨大切迹顶上方,100 mm至后狭窄,全程长约130 mm;螺钉为内倾、头倾方向,与矢状面和横断面的夹角均约为30°;97%的进钉点位于髂前下棘中心外侧,其中外下方占71%。 结论　髋臼上螺钉的进钉点主要位于髂前下棘外方,内倾、头倾方向,与矢状面和横断面的夹角均约为30°。     

髋臼前柱骨折后入路拉力螺钉内固定应用解剖及临床应用

目的　为髋臼前柱骨折后入路置入拉力螺钉固定提供解剖学基础。 方法　(1)50侧(男32,女18)成人髋骨标本,观测前柱纵轴走向,将纵轴穿出髂骨翼外面的点定为进钉点。用直径3.5 mm导针经进钉点沿纵轴置入,经耻骨结节下方穿出。测量导针与矢状面夹角α及与冠状面夹角β,纵轴长度,导针易穿出骨皮质的薄弱区及穿出点与耻骨结节的距离,对测量数据行统计学处理。(2)34侧尸体标本解剖,观测进针点毗邻,模拟置钉,经X线、CT扫描验证结果。 结果　进钉点位于髂结节和坐骨结节连线与髂前上棘和坐骨大切迹顶点连线的交点,出钉点于耻骨结节下方,男（6.62±2.79）mm,女（11.71±1.66）mm, α（50.62±3.55）°,β男（22.32±3.66）°,女（19.57±2.07）°;纵轴长,男（108.64±5.49）mm,女（100.92±6.25）mm。以上数据除角α外男女间均有显著性差异。验证结果及临床应用疗效满意。 结论　髋臼前、后柱均骨折时,在后入路复位固定后柱的同时,经该方法置入拉力螺钉固定前柱安全、简捷。     

髋臼后柱拉力螺钉内固定的应用解剖学

目的:为髋臼后柱拉力螺钉内固定提供解剖学基础。方法:取半骨盆标本30个,采用截面法将一斯氏针由髋臼后柱最小截面的圆心打入,该斯氏针在髂翼内侧穿出点(即拉力螺钉的人钉点)为P。测量其在髋臼后柱骨皮质内的长度。作一参考线AB,其中A为骶髂关节最前缘,B为髂前下棘的基底,并经过P点作AB的垂线PC。将髂前上下棘间切迹命名为D点,作直线PD,并测量其距离。斯氏针与PD的夹角为α,斯氏钊与髂翼内侧的夹角为β。结果:PC为AB的中垂线,P点距AB的距离PC为(6.1±1.9)mm,PD平行于AB,PD距离为(2.5±2.6)mm,斯氏针与PD或AB的夹角仅为89.5°±3.2°,斯氏针与髂翼内侧的夹角β为24.1°±1.7°,髋臼后柱骨皮质内斯氏针长度(即拉力螺钉的长度)为(131.2±8.9)mm。最小截面位于髋臼切迹上方15.0mm处,位于髋臼中部,该截面平均直径(即拉力螺钉最大直径)为(12.8±2.1)mm。结论:髋臼后柱拉力螺钉内固定是可行的。     

髋臼前柱拉力螺钉内固定的定量解剖学研究

目的 :为髋臼前柱拉力螺钉内固定提供解剖学基础。方法 :取半骨盆标本 3 0个 ,自髋臼切迹至髋臼上缘作系列截骨面 ,用一斯氏针由最小截面的圆心逆行打入 ,在髂骨后外侧穿出点为P。将该截面下方的系列截面解剖复位 ,再将斯氏针顺行打出 ,测量其在髋臼前柱骨皮质内的长度。作一参考线AB ,其中A为髂前上、下棘间的切迹 ,B为坐骨大切迹 ,并作AB的中垂线CD。结果 :P位于AB的中垂线上 ,P点距AB的距离为 (15 .3± 4.7)mm ,斯氏针与AB的夹角为 (90 .1± 4.7)° ,与CD的夹角为 (2 5 .3± 3 .9)° ,髋臼前柱骨皮质内斯氏针长度为 (82 .0± 7.9)mm。最小截面位于髋臼切迹上方 15 .0mm处 ,该截面平均直径为 :(5 .2± 1.9)mm。结论 :髋臼前柱拉力螺钉的入钉点在髂前上下棘之间切迹与坐骨大切迹连线中点上方 (15 .3± 4.7)mm处 ,其进针方向与该线呈 (90 .1± 4.7)° ,与该线中垂线呈 (2 5 .3± 3 .9)° ,该拉力螺钉直径为 (5 .2± 1.9)mm ,长度为 (82 .0± 7.9)mm。     

优化髋臼后柱螺钉内固定的计算机辅助设计

目的研究专门的最优化计算机辅助解剖测量技术,为髋臼后柱拉力螺钉内固定提供解剖学基础。方法取骨盆CT数据40份,进行精确的三维重建得到80个半骨盆模型。根据临床手术需要,对螺钉到骨边界的加权距离进行动态采样作为最优化目标函数,在约束条件下自动迭代修改螺钉2个端点位置,达到最佳位置。对测量结果进行统计分析,并设计新的解剖测量参考体系。结果髋臼后柱拉力螺钉的入钉点在骶髂关节最前缘与髂前上下棘之间切迹连线的上方(18.90±1.19)mm处,垂足点在骶髂关节最前缘与髂前上下棘之间切迹连线上的比例位置为2:3;其进针方向与入钉点-髂前上下棘之间切迹连线呈(85.99±2.04)°,进针方向与入钉点-垂足点连线的夹角呈(37.54±1.55)°;螺钉骨内段长度为(133.07±3.22)mm。结论最优化计算机辅助解剖测量是一种非常有效的新测量技术,克服了传统手工实物解剖测量的缺点,并且方便设计新的解剖测量参考体系和临床手术方案,有利于提高临床工作质量和效率。     

髋臼后柱经皮逆行拉力螺钉固定可行性的数字模型研究

目的:为导向器引导经皮逆行拉力螺钉固定髋臼后柱骨折的可行性提供应用解剖学基础.方法:收集29例正常成人骨盆的螺旋CT扫描数据,重建骨盆三维模型.找出髂前上棘和髂后上棘的骨性最突出点,分别为(A)和(B),经AB的中点(M)做一垂直于AB的平面(α).在髋臼后柱的α截面上置入虚拟三维圆柱体.测量其最大直径(d),以及置入点(C)到坐骨结节远端(D)的距离CD.比较d、CD在男女之间及左右两侧间的差异.结果:共获得58个半骨盆,男26个,女32个.虚拟三维圆柱体置入成功率为87.9%,其中男性为96.2%,女性为81.3%.虚拟三维圆柱体的平均最大直径为(11.44±3.20)mm,且男女间的差异有统计学意义(t=4.55,P＜0.001).CD为(19.10±5.10)mm.结论:沿髂前上棘和髂后上棘最突点连线的中垂线置入拉力螺钉固定髋臼后柱是可行的,该方法更适用于男性,可作为研发导向器的应用解剖学依据.     

逆行经皮髋臼后柱螺钉的影像解剖学

目的 探讨逆行髋臼后柱螺钉的进钉位置、方向及固定范围。方法 收集100例正常成人骨盆CT数据（男、女各50例）,利用交互式医学图像控制系统（Mimics）17.0软件三维重建骨盆并导入Geomagic Studio 2015软件。从坐骨结节至髂窝方向进行透视,垂直后柱“三棱柱”通道横断面放置虚拟螺钉,测量螺钉的最大直径、进钉点、方向、出钉点及螺钉安全倾角。确定螺钉固定的范围,螺钉在后柱通道易穿出部位及术中判断螺钉是否穿出的透视体位。结果 髋臼后柱安全通道近似“三棱柱”形,进钉点位于坐骨结节内外侧缘中线上,距离坐骨结节最远端男性为(12.99±1.99) mm,女性为 (13.26±2.58) mm,男女差异无显著性 (P＞0.05);髂窝出钉点距离同侧前方骶髂关节线男性为(23.65±2.42)mm,女性为(24.94±2.39) mm;距离真骨盆缘男性为(19.33±2.60)mm,女性为(17.63±2.00) mm;最大螺钉直径男性为(17.21±1.41) mm,女性为(15.54±1.51) mm;髋臼后柱逆行置钉方向与矢状面夹角男性为(10.52±3.04)°,女性为(7.72±2.99)°;与冠状面夹角男性为(15.00±4.92) °,女性为 (12.94±4.72)°,以上数据男女间差异均有显著性（P＜0.05）。逆行经坐骨结节置钉可固定股骨头中心所在水平面近端 4 cm 以下所有的髋臼后柱骨折,易穿出部位分别为髋臼后壁与坐骨支移行处、髋臼中部、坐骨大切迹水平下1 cm。“三棱柱”的3个侧面的切线位分别是髂骨斜位10°,闭孔斜位60°,髂骨斜位60°。结论 逆行髋臼后柱螺钉进钉点位于坐骨结节内外侧缘中线,距离坐骨结节最远端1.3 cm,方向约外倾10°,前倾15°,可固定股骨头中心所在水平面近端4 cm以下的髋臼后柱骨折。     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

HLA genes in Amerindians from Mexico San Vicente Tancuayalab Teenek/Huastecos

Huastecos or Teenek Amerindians are presently living at North East Mexico (San Luis Potosi State). They have probably one of the most ancient culture of Mexico and Central America together with Mayas and Olmec groups with which also show close relationships. Proximity to Atlantic Ocean/Mexican Gulf originated that Spaniards had very early contact with them at about 1519 CE or before. In the present paper we have aimed to study HLA gene profile which may be useful for HLA and disease epidemiology and transplant programs in Teeneks. HLA-DRB1*04:07, -DRB1*14:06 and -DRB1*04:11 have been found in high frequency like in other Amerindian groups. High frequency typical Amerindians HLA extended haplotypes have been found, such as A*02-B*35-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; A*68-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 and A*02-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; also new haplotypes have been described, like A*02-B*52-DRB1*04:11-DQB1*03:02, A*68-B*35-DRB1*14:02-DQB1*03:01 and A*68-B*40-DRB1*16:02-DQB1*03:01. Genetic proximity is observed not only to linguistically close Mayans, but also to Mazatecans, Mixtecans and Zapotecans, who speak an altogether different languages; it shows once more that genes and languages do not correlate. This population was greatly diminished after European contact between 1500 and 1600 years CE; in fact, North and South America First Inhabitants population was brought from 80 down to 8 million people because of diseases (i.e.: measles, smallpox or influenza), slavery and war.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.