Sagittal knee joint kinematics and energetics in response to different landing heights and techniques

Single-leg and double-leg landing techniques are common athletic maneuvers typically performed from various landing heights during intensive sports activities. However, it is still unclear how the knee joint responds in terms of kinematics and energetics to the combined effects of different landing heights and techniques. We hypothesized that the knee displays greater flexion angles and angular velocities, joint power and work in response to the larger peak ground reaction force from 0.6-m height, compared to 0.3-m height. We further hypothesized that the knee exhibits elevated flexion angles and angular velocities, joint power and work during double-leg landing, relative to single-leg landing. Ground reaction force, knee joint kinematics and energetics data were obtained from 10 subjects performing single-leg and double-leg landing from 0.3-m to 0.6-m heights, using motion-capture system and force-plates. Higher peak ground reaction force (p < 0.05) was observed during single-leg landing and/or at greater landing height. We found greater knee flexion angles and angular velocities (p < 0.05) during double-leg landing and/or at greater landing height. Elevated knee joint power and work were noted (p < 0.05) during double-leg landing and/or at greater landing height. The knee joint is able to respond more effectively in terms of kinematics and energetics to a larger landing impact from an elevated height during double-leg landing, compared to single-leg landing. This allows better shock absorption and thus minimizes the risk of sustaining lower extremity injuries.     

Non-linear flexion relationships of the knee with the hip and ankle, and their relative postures during landing

The knee joint, together with the hip and ankle, contributes to overall shock absorption through their respective flexion motions during landing. This study sought to investigate the presence of a lower extremity coordination pattern by determining mathematical relationships that associate knee flexion angles with hip flexion and ankle dorsiflexion angles during landing phase, and to determine relative postures of the hip and ankle, with reference to the knee, and examine how these relative postures change during key events of the landing phase. Eight healthy male subjects were recruited to perform double-leg landing from 0.6-m height. Motion capture system and force-plates were used to obtain kinematics and ground reaction forces (GRF) respectively. Non-linear regression analysis was employed to determine appropriate mathematical relationships of the hip flexion and ankle dorsiflexion angles with knee flexion angles during the landing phase. Relative lower extremity postures were compared between events of initial contact, peak GRF and maximum knee flexion, using ANOVA on ranks. Our results demonstrated a lower extremity coordination pattern, whereby the knee flexion angles had strong exponential (R² = 0.92–0.99, p < 0.001) and natural logarithmic (R² = 0.85–0.97, p < 0.001) relationships with hip flexion and ankle dorsiflexion angles respectively during the landing phase. Furthermore, we found that the subjects adopted distinctly different relative lower extremity postures (p < 0.05) during peak GRF as compared to initial contact. These relative postures were further maintained till the end of the landing phase. The occurrence of these relative postures may be a reflexive mechanism for the subjects to efficiently absorb the impact imposed by the peak GRF.     

Regression relationships of landing height with ground reaction forces, knee flexion angles, angular velocities and joint powers during double-leg landing

Ground reaction forces (GRF), knee flexion angles, angular velocities and joint powers are unknown at large landing heights, which are infeasible for laboratory testing. However, this information is important for understanding lower extremity injury mechanisms. We sought to determine regression relationships of landing height with these parameters during landing so as to facilitate estimation of these parameters at large landing heights. Five healthy male subjects performed landing tasks from heights of 0.15–1.05 m onto a force-plate. Motion capture system was used to obtain knee flexion angles during landing via passive markers placed on the lower body. An iterative regression model, involving simple linear/exponential/natural logarithmic functions, was used to fit regression equations to experimental data. Peak GRF followed an exponential regression relationship (R² = 0.90–0.99, p < 0.001; power = 0.987–0.998). Peak GRF slope and impulse also had an exponential relationship (R² = 0.90–0.96, p < 0.001; power = 0.980–0.997 and R² = 0.90–0.99, p < 0.001; power = 0.990–1.000 respectively) with landing height. Knee flexion angle at initial contact and at peak GRF had an inverse-exponential regression relationship (R² = 0.81–0.99, p < 0.001–p = 0.006; power = 0.834–0.978 and R² = 0.84–0.97, p < 0.001–p = 0.004; power = 0.873–0.999 respectively). There was also an inverse-exponential relationship between peak knee flexion angular velocity and landing height (R² = 0.86–0.96, p < 0.001; power = 0.935–0.994). Peak knee joint power demonstrated a substantial linear relationship (R² = 0.98–1.00, p < 0.001; power = 0.990–1.000). The parameters analyzed in this study are highly dependent on landing height. The exponential increase in peak GRF parameters and the relatively slower increase in knee flexion angles, angular velocities and joint power may synergistically lead to an exacerbated lower extremity injury risk at large landing heights.     

穿不同鞋与裸足对羽毛球蹬地动作下肢及跖趾关节运动协调特征的影响

目的探讨穿着不同鞋和裸足对羽毛球典型蹬跨步动作蹬地时腿下肢和跖趾关节运动协调的影响,为羽毛球运动的科学训练和专用鞋的选择及研发提供理论基础。方法选取优秀男子羽毛球运动员作为研究对象,穿着某品牌羽毛球成品鞋、某款羽毛球样品鞋和裸足作为不同鞋条件,并以羽毛球典型蹬跨步作为测试动作。利用Vicon运动捕捉系统和高速摄像仪同步采集下肢蹬地过程中髋、膝、踝和跖趾关节的运动学及协调特征。结果(1)在蹬地阶段,穿着两款羽毛球专项鞋时下肢各关节的运动学表现并无显著性差异,但相比裸足,两款鞋均在一定程度上增加踝、跖趾关节的角速度,并显著减低各关节角速度到达峰值的时间;(2)下肢运动协调特征方面,3种足鞋条件均表现为在相近时间内下肢髋、膝、踝和跖趾关节由近及远依次加速蹬伸。结论穿着运动鞋具备更好的蹬伸动力来源,能增加蹬伸的速度和效果,有利于提高运动表现;羽毛球蹬伸动作协调性的表现形式倾向于顺序性与同步性的合理组合,建议应针对性地加强踝、跖趾等末端关节的速度和力量训练。     

两种疲劳方案对落地时下肢运动学和冲击力时频特征的影响

目的比较两种疲劳方案对人体落地动作下肢关节运动学及冲击力时/频域特征的影响。方法选取15名优秀跑、跳类专项男性运动员,利用Vicon运动捕捉系统和Kistler三维测力台比较两种疲劳方案(恒速跑、折返跑+垂直纵跳)前后落地时矢、额状面运动学和地面反作用力(ground reaction force,GRF)时/频域特征。结果(1)两种疲劳方案均会造成髋、膝关节在矢状面上的角度减小、屈曲活动度增加,且采用跑+跳方案时踝关节屈曲活动度、膝关节最大屈曲角速度增加(P0.05),髋关节外展活动度以及髋、膝关节最大外展角速度增加(P0.05);(2)两种疲劳方案前后,冲击力时域特征均无显著差异;采用跑和跑+跳方案,分别在3.51、8.20 Hz及1.17、3.51、7.03 Hz下表现出GRF频谱振幅减小(P0.05)。结论两种疲劳方案均会导致下肢在受到落地冲击时更多采用屈曲着地方式,但跑+跳方案表现更明显且干预时间更短,从实验方法学角度更具优势。研究结果可为研究疲劳后的力特征提供进一步参考。     

跳伞着陆过程中膝关节损伤的有限元研究

目的利用膝关节有限元模型和模拟跳伞着陆实验数据,对半蹲式跳伞着陆过程进行数值模拟,并分析膝关节损伤的机理。方法对16名健康志愿者进行半蹲式模拟跳伞实验,跳落高度分别为0.32m,0.52m和0.72m。基于核磁共振成像建立人体膝关节的三维有限元模型,采用实验测得的膝关节运动学和地面反力数据对跳伞着陆过程进行数值模拟。结果关节内组织的应力水平随着跳落高度的增加而增加,外侧半月板和关节软骨承受了较大的载荷,前交叉韧带和内侧副韧带在屈膝角度达到最大时产生明显的应力集中。结论跳伞着陆的高速冲击是造成关节损伤的直接原因,外侧关节软骨和半月板更易受到损伤,前交叉韧带和内侧副韧带较易在屈膝幅度最大时发生撕裂。     

鞋帮高度对跳跃动作踝关节矢状面运动学及动力学特征的影响

目的 探讨穿着高、低帮篮球鞋对跳跃动作踝关节矢状面运动学、动力学以及运动表现的影响。方法 利用Vicon运动捕捉系统和Kistler三维测力台同步采集12名受试者穿着高、低帮篮球鞋进行双腿落地反跳（drop jump, DJ）和单腿跨步跳（lay-up jump, LJ）过程中踝关节矢状面屈伸最小/最大角度、力矩、功率、刚度、跳跃高度以及背屈活动度等参数指标。结果 （1） 穿着高帮鞋能够显著减小踝关节的背屈角度（P<0.05）。在DJ和LJ过程中,两款鞋的跳跃高度、踝关节触地角度、最小/最大角度、活动度均无显著性差异;（2） 在DJ过程中,穿着两款鞋的踝关节屈伸动力学特征无显著差异;但在LJ过程中,穿着高帮鞋的跖屈力矩和功率峰值均显著小于低帮鞋（P<0.05）。结论 穿着高帮鞋虽然没有限制跳跃情况下踝关节的屈伸表现,但会影响踝关节矢状面的部分动力学特征,建议鞋帮高度的选择和设计能够在护踝的基础上充分发挥踝关节在矢状面的力学作用,从而实现运动表现的最优化。     

鞋帮高度对跳跃动作踝关节矢状面运动学及动力学特征的影响

目的探讨穿着高、低帮篮球鞋对跳跃动作踝关节矢状面运动学、动力学以及运动表现的影响。方法利用Vicon运动捕捉系统和Kistler三维测力台同步采集12名受试者穿着高、低帮篮球鞋进行双腿落地反跳(drop jump,DJ)和单腿跨步跳(lay-up jump,LJ)过程中踝关节矢状面屈伸最小/最大角度、力矩、功率、刚度、跳跃高度以及背屈活动度等参数指标。结果 (1)穿着高帮鞋能够显著减小踝关节的背屈角度(P0.05)。在DJ和LJ过程中,两款鞋的跳跃高度、踝关节触地角度、最小/最大角度、活动度均无显著性差异;(2)在DJ过程中,穿着两款鞋的踝关节屈伸动力学特征无显著差异;但在LJ过程中,穿着高帮鞋的跖屈力矩和功率峰值均显著小于低帮鞋(P0.05)。结论穿着高帮鞋虽然没有限制跳跃情况下踝关节的屈伸表现,但会影响踝关节矢状面的部分动力学特征,建议鞋帮高度的选择和设计能够在护踝的基础上充分发挥踝关节在矢状面的力学作用,从而实现运动表现的最优化。     

鞋帮高度对跳跃动作踝关节矢状面运动学及动力学特征的影响

目的 探讨穿着高、低帮篮球鞋对跳跃动作踝关节矢状面运动学、动力学以及运动表现的影响。方法 利用Vicon运动捕捉系统和Kistler三维测力台同步采集12名受试者穿着高、低帮篮球鞋进行双腿落地反跳（drop jump, DJ）和单腿跨步跳（lay-up jump, LJ）过程中踝关节矢状面屈伸最小/最大角度、力矩、功率、刚度、跳跃高度以及背屈活动度等参数指标。结果 （1） 穿着高帮鞋能够显著减小踝关节的背屈角度（P<0.05）。在DJ和LJ过程中,两款鞋的跳跃高度、踝关节触地角度、最小/最大角度、活动度均无显著性差异;（2） 在DJ过程中,穿着两款鞋的踝关节屈伸动力学特征无显著差异;但在LJ过程中,穿着高帮鞋的跖屈力矩和功率峰值均显著小于低帮鞋（P<0.05）。结论 穿着高帮鞋虽然没有限制跳跃情况下踝关节的屈伸表现,但会影响踝关节矢状面的部分动力学特征,建议鞋帮高度的选择和设计能够在护踝的基础上充分发挥踝关节在矢状面的力学作用,从而实现运动表现的最优化。     

着鞋和触地方式对慢跑时足部受力特征的影响

目的探讨穿鞋和裸足跑在不同触地方式下对足部受力特征的影响。方法利用Medilogic鞋垫式足底压力测试系统和Kistler三维测力台采集12名健康男性受试者在着鞋与裸足情况下分别进行后跟触地与前掌触地慢跑(3 m/s)时的受力特征,包括地面反作用力、冲击力峰值、最大负载率、足底压力峰值以及冲量。结果 (1)后跟触地时,穿着运动鞋可以显著降低最大负载率,并且延缓冲击力峰值出现的时间。前掌触地时,穿鞋时的最大蹬地力量要显著大于裸足;(2)不同触地方式对于足底各区域压力峰值参数的影响相较于着鞋条件更多,主要表现为两种触地方式之间对于足中区和足后区足底压力峰值和出现时间的差异。结论不同触地方式对慢跑时的足部受力影响更为显著。穿鞋后跟触地跑能降低冲击负荷,而裸足前掌触地跑则会使足底压力过度集中于足前部,提示慢跑时无论采用何种触地方式均可以通过选择合理的运动鞋来减小足部受力。     

Lower extremity kinematics and ground reaction forces after prophylactic lace-up ankle bracing

CONTEXT: Long-term effects of ankle bracing on lower extremity kinematics and kinetics are unknown. Ankle motion restriction may negatively affect the body's ability to attenuate ground reaction forces (GRFs). OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the immediate and long-term effects of ankle bracing on lower extremity kinematics and GRFs during a jump landing. DESIGN: Experimental mixed model (2 [group] x 2 [brace] x 2 [time]) with repeated measures. SETTING: Sports medicine research laboratory. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: A total of 37 healthy subjects were assigned randomly to either the intervention (n = 11 men, 8 women; age = 19.63 +/- 0.72 years, height = 176.05 +/- 10.58 cm, mass = 71.50 +/- 13.15 kg) or control group (n = 11 men, 7 women; age = 19.94 +/- 1.44 years, height = 179.15 +/- 8.81 cm, mass = 74.10 +/- 10.33 kg). INTERVENTION(S): The intervention group wore braces on both ankles and the control group did not wear braces during all recreational activities for an 8-week period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Initial ground contact angles, maximum joint angles, time to reach maximum joint angles, and joint range of motion for sagittal-plane knee and ankle motion were measured during a jump-landing task. Peak vertical GRF and the time to reach peak vertical GRF were assessed also. RESULTS: While participants were wearing the brace, ankle plantar flexion at initial ground contact (brace = 35 degrees +/- 13 degrees , no brace = 38 degrees +/- 15 degrees , P = .024), maximum dorsiflexion (brace = 21 degrees +/- 7 degrees , no brace = 22 degrees +/- 6 degrees , P = .04), dorsiflexion range of motion (brace = 56 degrees +/- 14 degrees , no brace = 59 degrees +/- 16 degrees , P = .001), and knee flexion range of motion (brace = 79 degrees +/- 16 degrees , no brace = 82 degrees +/- 16 degrees , P = .036) decreased, whereas knee flexion at initial ground contact increased (brace = 12 degrees +/- 9 degrees , no brace = 9 degrees +/- 9 degrees , P = .0001). Wearing the brace for 8 weeks did not affect any of the outcome measures, and the brace caused no changes in vertical GRFs (P > .05). CONCLUSIONS: Although ankle sagittal-plane motion was restricted with the brace, knee flexion upon landing increased and peak vertical GRF did not change. The type of lace-up brace used in this study appeared to restrict ankle motion without increasing knee extension or vertical GRFs and without changing kinematics or kinetics over time.     

Effect of knee flexion angle on ground reaction forces,knee moments and muscle co-contraction during an impact-like deceleration landing: Implications for the non-contact mechanism of ACL injury

Investigating landing kinetics and neuromuscular control strategies during rapid deceleration movements is a prerequisite to understanding the non-contact mechanism of ACL injury. The purpose of this study was to quantify the effect of knee flexion angle on ground reaction forces, net knee joint moments, muscle co-contraction and lower extremity muscles during an impact-like, deceleration task. Ground reaction forces and knee joint moments were determined from video and force plate records of 10 healthy male subjects performing rapid deceleration single leg landings from a 10.5 cm height with different degrees of knee flexion at landing. Muscle co-contraction was based on muscle moments calculated from an EMG-to-moment processing model. Ground reaction forces and co-contraction indices decreased while knee extensor moments increased significantly with increased degrees of knee flexion at landing (all p < 0.005). Higher ground reaction forces when landing in an extended knee position suggests they are a contributing factor in non-contact ACL injuries. Increased knee extensor moments and less co-contraction with flexed knee landings suggest that quadriceps overload may not be the primary cause of non-contact ACL injuries. The results bring into question the counterbalancing role of the hamstrings during dynamic movements. The soleus may be a valuable synergist stabilizing the tibia against anterior translation at landing. Movement strategies that lessen the propagation of reaction forces up the kinetic chain may help prevent non-contact ACL injuries. The relative interaction of all involved thigh and lower leg muscles, not just the quadriceps and hamstrings should be considered when interpreting non-contact ACL injury mechanisms.     

Visual guidance of landing behaviour when stepping down to a new level

When stepping down from one level to another, the leading limb has to arrest downward momentum of the body and subsequently receive and safely support bodyweight before level walking can begin. Such step downs are performed over a wide range of heights and predicting when and where contact between the landing limb and the lower level will be made is likely a critical factor. To determine if visual feedback obtained after movement initiation is habitually used in guiding landing behaviour, the present study determined whether pre-landing kinematics and the mechanics of landing would be modulated according to the type of visual feedback available during the stepping down phase. Ten healthy participants (32.3 ± 7.9 years) stepped, from a standing position, down from three different heights onto a forceplatform, either coming immediately to rest or proceeding directly to walking across the laboratory. Repeated trials were undertaken under habitual vision conditions or with vision blurred or occluded 2–3 s prior to movement initiation. Pre-landing kinematics were assessed by determining, for the instant of landing, lead-limb knee and ankle angle, stepping distance, forwards positioning of the body CM within the base of support and the forwards and downwards body CM velocity. Landing mechanics for the initial contact period were characterized using lead limb vertical loading and stiffness, and trail limb un-weighting. When vision was occluded movement time, ankle plantarflexion and knee flexion were significantly increased compared to that determined for habitual vision, whereas forwards body CM positioning and velocity, vertical loading and stiffness, and trail limb un-weighting, were significantly reduced (p < 0.05). Similar adaptations were observed under blurred conditions, although to a lesser extent. Most variables were significantly affected by stepping task and step height. Subjects likely reduced forwards CM position and velocity at instant of landing, in order to keep the CM well away from the anterior border of the base of support, presumably to ensure boundary margins of safety were high should landing occur sooner or later than expected. The accompanying increase in ankle plantarflexion at instant of landing, and increase in single limb support time, suggests that subjects tended to probe for the ground with their lead limb under modified vision conditions. They also had more bodyweight on the trail limb at the end of the initial contact period and as a consequence had a prolonged weight transfer time. These findings indicate that under blurred or occluded vision conditions subjects adopted a cautious strategy where by they ‘sat back’ on their trail limb and used their lead limb to probe for the ground. Hence, they did not fully commit to weight transfer until somatosensory feedback from the lead limb confirmed they had safely made contact. The effect of blurring vision was not identical to occluding vision, and led to several important differences between these conditions consistent with the use of impoverished visual information on depth. These findings indicate that online vision is customarily used to regulate landing behaviour when stepping down.

女性全身关节过度活动患者跳深着陆时膝关节应力分析

目的 分析全身关节过度活动(generalized joint hypermobility, GJH)女性患者与健康女性在跳深着陆中膝关节软骨、半月板von Mises应力分布差异。方法 采集女性GJH患者与女性健康受试者在跳深着陆缓冲阶段垂直地面反作用力(vertical ground reaction force, VGRF)峰值时刻的膝关节运动学与地面反作用力特征,通过逆动力学计算膝关节反作用力,并将膝关节沿股骨长轴方向的合力作为载荷;基于1名女性膝关节三维有限元模型,分别对2组受试者跳深着陆过程进行数值仿真,计算膝关节软骨与半月板von Mises应力及应力分布。结果 在跳深着陆VGRF峰值时刻,GJH组和对照组膝关节屈曲、外翻角度具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。相比于对照组,GJH组膝关节屈曲角度降低、外翻角度增加;在跳深着陆中,GJH组膝关节内部承受应力更大且胫股关节内、外侧室负重区应力分布不均衡,其股骨软骨外侧髁外侧、外侧胫骨软骨前部/中部外侧以及外侧半月板前角、体部外侧缘为应力集中部位。结论 女性GJH患者因膝关节活动范围增大、关节囊松弛,导致在跳跃类项目中膝关节...     

基于统计参数映射分析跑鞋跟掌落差对下肢关节负荷的影响

目的 探讨在相同跑速下穿着不同落差跑鞋对下肢关节负荷的影响,为跑鞋设计和跑步者选购跑鞋提供依据。方法 18名男性跑步者分别穿着零落差和10 mm落差跑鞋以(4.0±0.2) m/s速度完成测试,使用红外高速运动捕捉系统和三维测力台同步采集下肢运动学参数和地面反作用力(ground reaction force, GRF)。使用统计参数映射法(statistical parameter mapping, SPM)分析跑鞋跟掌落差对支撑期垂直GRF、下肢关节三维力矩的影响。结果 跑鞋跟掌落差对垂直GRF无影响,对下肢关节部分力矩-时间序列影响显著。与穿着零落差跑鞋相比,穿着10 mm落差跑鞋在27%～38%支撑期髋关节内旋力矩增加,在47%～75%支撑期膝关节伸展力矩增加,在16%～33%、25%～30%、12%～25%支撑期踝关节跖屈力矩、外翻力矩和外旋力矩降低。结论 与穿着零落差跑鞋相比,穿着10 mm落差跑鞋在支撑前期髋关节负荷增加,踝关节负荷降低,在支撑中期膝关节负荷增加。建议跑步者结合自身特点及跑鞋跟掌落差对下肢关节负荷特征的影响,选择适合自己的跑鞋。     

The combined impact of a perceptual–cognitive task and neuromuscular fatigue on knee biomechanics during landing

Background

A large majority of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are non-contact, most often occurring during a landing or change of direction. Recent research indicates that cognitive factors may be involved in non-contact ACL injuries. The aim of this study was to determine if a game-situation perceptual–cognitive load leads to altered landing kinematics in physically fatigued female athletes.

Dynamic Stabilization Time After Isokinetic and Functional Fatigue

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of an isokinetic fatigue protocol and a functional fatigue protocol on time to stabilization (TTS), ground reaction force (GRF), and joint kinematics during a jump landing. DESIGN AND SETTING: Subjects were assessed on 2 occasions for TTS, GRF, and joint kinematics immediately before and after completing a fatigue protocol. One week separated the 2 sessions, and the order of fatigue protocols was randomly assigned and counterbalanced. SUBJECTS: Twenty healthy male (n = 8, age = 21.8 +/- 1.4 years, height = 180.6 +/- 7.6 cm, and mass = 74.1 +/- 13.0 kg) and female (n = 12, age = 22.2 +/- 2.1 years, height = 169.3 +/- 9.8 cm, and mass = 62.5 +/- 10.1 kg) subjects volunteered to participate. MEASUREMENTS: Subjects performed 2-legged jumps equivalent to 50% of maximum jump height, followed by a single-leg landing onto the center of a forceplate 70 cm from the starting position. Peak vertical GRF and vertical, medial-lateral, and anterior-posterior TTS were obtained from forceplate recordings. Maximum ankle dorsiflexion, knee-flexion, and knee-valgum angles were determined using 3-dimensional motion analysis. RESULTS: A 2-way analysis of variance with repeated measures revealed no significant differences when comparing TTS, GRF, and joint kinematics after isokinetic and functional fatigue protocols. CONCLUSIONS: No difference was noted between isokinetic and functional fatigue protocols relative to dynamic stability when landing from a jump.     

Motor strategies in landing from a jump: the role of skill in task execution

Summary A motor performance which involves multijoint coordination and belongs to the natural repertoire of motor behavior has been studied. Displacements have been related to EMG in the lower limb when taking off and landing from a jump down (45 cm) onto two surfaces of differing compliance in two populations of teenage girls: skilled and unskilled. To evaluate the performance, an index was defined taking into account: 1) the time required for reaching stability (1 body weight) after landing, and 2) the amount of sway during the stabilization time. Despite the apparent intra and inter subject similarities in performing the jump-down, slight differences were observed in both the kinematics and electromyogram patterns. During takeoff, two strategies were identified that were not related to either skill or landing surface compliance. The most common strategy, Push Off, is characterized by almost full joint extension when departing from the jump platform and includes a swing period during flight. The other strategy, Roll Off, is characterized by joint flexion at departure and continual extension during midflight. While the ankle dorsiflexor, tibialis anterior, is active in preparation for the takeoff phase in both strategies, it is followed by activation of the ankle plantarflexors, lateral gastrocnemious and soleus and the hip/knee musculature, rectus femoris, biceps femoris, and vastus lateralis, only in the push off strategy. The roll off strategy is characterized by a lack of other muscle activation prior to takeoff. At landing, regardless of the strategy used in takeoff, onset of muscles followed the same sequence for both landing surfaces; ankle musculature activity began first followed by activity in the knee and hip musculature. The onset of the musculature occurred closer to landing when landing on the more compliant surface. Skilled subjects were characterized by adjustments in amount of ankle extension present at landing and concomitant flexion post-landing with respect to landing surface. When landing on the rigid surface, the ankle was more plantarflexed and onset of the dorsiflexor occurred after that of the plantarflexors; on foam, dorsiflexor activity was coincident with the plantarflexors. Ankle joint range of motion post-landing was subsequently larger when landing on the rigid surface. In contrast, unskilled individuals used a default strategy for landing on both surfaces where the ankle position and movement was between that seen for the two conditions in the skilled individual. It is suggested the landing and takeoff phases are programmed independently in both skilled and unskilled subjects. Further, it is hypothesized that the skilled individuals may be more adept at making subtle adjustments to landing surfaces by continual update during execution of the movement, while in unskilled subjects this capability is less evident. The effect of long term learning as well as the adaptive capabilities of the nervous system during the execution of the movement in skilled and unskilled subjects is discussed.     

Effects of footwear on plantar foot sensitivity: a study with Formula 1 shoes

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of Formula 1 footwear on the ability of the plantar foot to detect vibration stimuli. Twenty-five male subjects participated in the study. Five foot/shoe conditions were analysed (barefoot and four shoe conditions). Vibration thresholds were measured at three anatomical locations of the plantar foot (heel, first metatarsal head and hallux) at two frequencies (30 and 200 Hz). The results show a frequency-dependent influence of footwear on foot sensitivity. The comparison between barefoot and shod conditions showed lower thresholds (P < 0.01) for the barefoot condition at 30 Hz, whereas lower thresholds (P < 0.01) were found for all shoe conditions at 200 Hz compared to barefoot. Lower thresholds (P < 0.01) were measured at 200 Hz in comparison to 30 Hz in all experimental conditions. The shoe outsole material seems to facilitate the transmission of high-frequent vibration stimuli to the skin, resulting in better vibration sensitivity at 200 Hz when wearing Formula 1 shoes compared to barefoot.     

Simple verbal instruction improves knee biomechanics during landing in female athletes

Knee injuries are highly prevalent in athletic populations, particularly among female athletes. Many of these injuries occur during landing from a jump. Various comprehensive knee injury prevention programs have been developed to date. However, there is a need to determine which components of these programs contribute directly to changes in knee biomechanics. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the immediate effect of three different simple verbal instructions on knee biomechanics during landing in adult female recreational athletes. Three-dimensional kinematic and kinetic analysis of landing from a countermovement jump was conducted in a counterbalanced cross-over repeated measures design. Results indicated that the instruction to land with equal weight distribution reduced the asymmetry of peak vertical ground reaction force compared to the control condition. The instruction to land softly reduced peak vertical ground reaction force and increased peak knee flexion compared to the control condition. The instruction to land with knees over toes increased peak knee flexion compared to the control condition. These findings indicate that verbal instruction may be a key component of the effects seen in previous research studies that have investigated the benefits of more complex training programs designed to reduce knee injury risk in female athletes.