晚期早产儿脑损伤的常见发病因素

晚期早产儿又称近足月儿.该胎龄的早产儿外表接近成熟,由于器官发育不成熟,比足月儿存在更大发病风险,脑损伤与足月儿相比发病风险明显增加,脑性瘫痪的发病率增加3倍,生长发育/心理发育迟缓也有明显增多,这主要与晚期早产儿脑发育不成熟有关.晚期早产儿其他系统的常见病发生率也比较高,如窒息、低血糖、高胆红素血症、呼吸窘迫综合征、...     

晚期早产儿神经发育预后及影响因素分析

目的探讨晚期早产儿在校正年龄1岁时的神经发育情况及其影响因素。方法采用首都儿科研究所修订的《0～6岁小儿神经心理发育量表》,对2008年4月至2009年4月于本院产科分娩的晚期早产儿及足月儿在校正年龄/生后年龄满1岁时进行智能发育测试,按照发育商(DQ)将晚期早产儿分为神经行为发育异常组(DQ<85)和正常组(DQ≥85),分析可能对神经发育产生影响的社会家庭因素和临床相关因素,应用Logistic回归分析筛选影响晚期早产儿神经发育的危险因素。结果晚期早产儿组165例,校正年龄1岁时神经行为发育异常9例(5.5%),对照组102例,1岁时神经行为发育异常3例(2.9%),两组差异有统计学意义(χ2=5.047,P<0.05)。1岁时晚期早产儿DQ低于足月儿[(93.8±7.5)分比(98.8±9.8)分,P<0.05],其大运动、精细动作、语言均落后于足月儿。极低出生体重(OR=2.175)、低血糖(OR=1.924)、母亲文化程度初中以下(OR=0.602)是影响晚期早产儿神经发育预后的危险因素(P<0.05)。结论晚期早产儿是发生不良神经预后的高危人群,与极低出生体重、低血糖、母亲文化水平低密切相关。     

晚期早产儿和早期足月儿1岁时神经心理发育水平的随访研究

目的 探讨晚期早产儿和早期足月儿1岁时的神经心理发育水平。方法 选择矫正年龄为1岁的1 257名儿童为研究对象。根据其出生时胎龄分为4组：早期早产儿（胎龄28~33⁺⁶周）、晚期早产儿（胎龄34~36⁺⁶周）、早期足月儿（胎龄37~38⁺⁶周）及完全足月儿（胎龄39~41⁺⁶周）。采用Gesell发展量表评估其神经心理发育水平,比较各组儿童在1岁时神经心理发育状况。结果 4组儿童1岁时5大能区（适应性、大运动、精细动作、语言、个人社交）发育商的差异均有统计学意义（P < 0.05）,且均表现为完全足月儿 > 早期足月儿 > 晚期早产儿 > 早期早产儿的趋势（P < 0.05）;各能区发育迟缓率也均表现为完全足月儿最低,早期早产儿最高（P < 0.05）。与完全足月儿相比,早期足月儿适应能力发育落后的风险增加（OR=1.796,P < 0.05）;晚期早产儿适应能力和精细动作发育落后的风险较高,OR值分别为2.651、2.679（P < 0.05）;早期早产儿适应能力、精细动作和个人社交能力发育落后的风险较高,OR值分别为4.069、3.710、3.515（P < 0.05）。结论 儿童1岁时神经心理发育落后的风险随出生胎龄的增加而降低,呈现剂量反应效应。早期足月儿和晚期早产儿仍然存在不同程度的发育落后,应重视早期足月儿和晚期早产儿的保健随访。     

晚期早产儿早期智能发育结局的研究

目的探讨晚期早产儿(LPI)早期智能发育结局。方法选择2012年1月至2015年1月新生儿病房收治的出生胎龄34~36+6周、治愈出院并定期规律随访的106例早产儿为晚期早产儿组;随机抽取同期120例健康足月儿(FPI)为对照组。对校正年龄40周的晚期早产儿及40周龄的足月儿进行新生儿神经行为测定(NBNA),晚期早产儿校正龄3、6、12月龄或者足月儿3、6、12月龄时采用Gesell发育量表进行评估。结果 LPI组NBNA评分低于37分,低于FTI组(P0.05)。校正龄3月龄时,LPI组大运动、精细运动、个人社交落后于FTI组(P0.05);校正龄6月龄时,LPI组适应性、大运动、精细运动落后于FTI组(P0.05);校正年龄12月龄时,LPI组适应性、大运动、个人社交测评明显低于FTI组(P0.05)。结论晚期早产儿早期智能发育迟缓,需加强神经发育监测。     

Which high‐risk infants should we follow‐up and how should we do it?

Early detection of neurodevelopmental delay and appropriate intervention has been associated with improved academic and social outcomes. Identifying those who are at high risk and might benefit is not straightforward. Approximately 2% of infants are admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit after birth and these babies are known to be at high risk of developmental impairment. While it is well recognised that the extreme preterm infant is at high risk of developmental impairment, there is increasing evidence of a risk in late preterm infants as well as those undergoing major cardiac and non-cardiac surgery. Not all infants are enrolled in multidisciplinary follow-up clinics with easy access to early intervention. These clinics are expensive to run with both limited and conflicting data on their long-term value. This review will concentrate on identifying which infants are at risk, reviewing the aetiology of the risk factors and the efficacy of follow-up clinics.     

Optimizing neurodevelopmental outcomes after prematurity: lessons in neuroprotection and early intervention

In recent decades, advances in maternal-fetal, obstetrics, and neonatal medicine have led to the increased survival of preterm infants. Very preterm infants (<32 weeks gestation), who comprise a small fraction (1.4%) of all neonates, have had dramatic increases in their survival. In addition, late preterm infants (33-36 weeks gestation) are a growing population of all preterm births and may include over 10% of all births. Both populations experience ongoing and significant challenges once they are discharged from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), including medical, nutritional, and developmental issues. Similarly, preterm infants may experience ongoing challenges once they enter school. As a result, clinicians should be aware of the unique neurodevelopmental issues that affect this population of children, including what they experience at different developmental stages. This review will describe how selected neonatal interventions impact on very preterm and late preterm infants. In addition, we will discuss the developmental and functional components of school readiness in very preterm and late preterm infants, using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) as a framework for health, enablement, disability, and participation. This framework allows us to describe children's strengths and challenges across body structure and body function, activities, and social roles in the context of child and family supports. We will explicitly describe the role of physicians and health professional teams in providing ongoing support and coordination of care throughout childhood for preterm infants who have experienced neonatal intensive care.     

Amplitudenintegriertes Elektroenzephalogramm

Every year about 15 million babies are born preterm and 1 in 12 infants were born preterm in Austria in 2011. Despite tremendous efforts in obstetrical and neonatal care, preterm birth rates have further increased during the last 30 years. At present preterm birth is the leading cause of neonatal death and the second most common cause of death in children aged below 5 years. In general, complications following preterm birth arise from the biological immaturity of the organ systems. It must be born in mind that the first year of life is the most dynamic phase of postnatal brain development. In recent years imaging studies have contributed valuable information to the knowledge on brain maturation and developing brain injury. Amplitude-integrated electroencephalogram (aEEG) has been used to continuously monitor electrocortical activity in newborns for more than 30 years. In recent years aEEG has also been extensively studied in preterm neonates which is reflected by the growing number of studies being published. The advantages of aEEG over other diagnostic tools appear to be manifold; therefore, aEEG monitors are now increasingly being used in neonatal intensive care units. Continuous monitoring of electrocortical activity allows close evaluation of brain function, ongoing analysis of maturational processes and developmental plasticity. Additionally, in preterm infants brain activity recorded within the first days after birth serves as the closest estimate of intrauterine electrocortical function. The aEEG completes the panel on instruments to monitor vital organ function during intensive care and is also available for the smallest patients.     

Role of the Pediatric Nurse Practitioner in Promoting Breastfeeding for Late Preterm Infants in Primary Care Settings

The preterm birth rate has been increasing steadily during the past two decades. Up to two thirds of this increase has been attributed to the increasing rate of late preterm births (34 to < 37 gestational weeks). The advantages of breastfeeding for premature infants appear to be even greater than for term infants; however, establishing breastfeeding in late-preterm infants is frequently more problematic. Because of their immaturity, late preterm infants may have less stamina; difficulty with latch, suck, and swallow; temperature instability; increased vulnerability to infection; hyperbilirubinemia, and more respiratory problems than the full-term infant. Late preterm infants usually are treated as full term and discharged within 48 hours of birth, so pediatric nurse practitioners in primary care settings play a critical role in promoting breastfeeding through early assessment and detection of breastfeeding difficulties and by providing anticipatory guidance related to breastfeeding and follow-up. The purpose of this article is to describe the developmental and physiologic immaturity of late preterm infants and to highlight the role of pediatric nurse practitioners in primary care settings in supporting and promoting breastfeeding for late preterm infants.     

Prothrombin and intraventricular haemorrhage

In the study by Salonvaara et al., low prothrombin activity in preterm infants was associated with intraventricular haemorrhage (IVH). The interesting research question—do preterm infants who develop IVH have underlying coagulation disturbance?—could not be answered in this study. Conclusion: The association needs further investigation. The role of prothrombin in perinatal brain damage in the development of IVH and of white matter damage has to be further elucidated.     

Visual performance in preterm infants with brain injuries compared with low-risk preterm infants

Background

Neonatal brain injuries are the main cause of visual deficit produced by damage to posterior visual pathways. While there are several studies of visual function in low-risk preterm infants or older children with brain injuries, research in children of early age is lacking.

Aim

To assess several aspects of visual function in preterm infants with brain injuries and to compare them with another group of low-risk preterm infants of the same age.

Study design and subjects

Forty-eight preterm infants with brain injuries and 56 low-risk preterm infants.

Outcome measures

The ML Leonhardt Battery of Optotypes was used to assess visual functions. This test was previously validated at a post-menstrual age of 40 weeks in newborns and at 30-plus weeks in preterm infants.

Results

The group of preterm infants with brain lesions showed a delayed pattern of visual functions in alertness, fixation, visual attention and tracking behavior compared to infants in the healthy preterm group. The differences between both groups, in the visual behaviors analyzed were around 30%. These visual functions could be identified from the first weeks of life.

Conclusion

Our results confirm the importance of using a straightforward screening test with preterm infants in order to assess altered visual function, especially in infants with brain injuries. The findings also highlight the need to provide visual stimulation very early on in life.     

晚期早产儿与足月小于胎龄儿生长发育状况比较

目的比较均为低出生体质量的晚期早产与足月小于胎龄(SGA)儿童的生长和发育状况。方法随机选取100例出生体质量<2 500 g的3岁儿童,其中50例为晚期早产儿童,50例为足月SGA儿童,对其进行体格测量及盖赛尔(Gesell)发育量表评估。结果晚期早产和足月SGA儿童的出生体质量、出生身长相近,但3岁时晚期早产儿童的身高、体质量、头围明显优于足月SGA儿童,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);Gesell发育评估显示,晚期早产儿童的动作能、应物能、语言能、应人能均高于足月SGA儿童,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论同为低出生体质量,晚期早产儿童的长期生长和发育状况优于足月SGA儿童。     

Neurodevelopmental outcomes of the late preterm infant

Late preterm infants (born at 34^0/7–36^6/7 weeks gestation) have been found to have increased morbidity and mortality compared to full term infants. Research has also been done to explore longer-term neurodevelopmental outcomes. This review details neurodevelopmental outcomes from birth to adulthood for late preterm infants. Outcome studies indicate that they are at increased risk of developmental disability, school failure, behavior problems, social and medical disabilities, and death. Many questions still remain regarding late preterm infant neurodevelopmental outcomes and future research should be done into this topic. Given the high prevalence of late preterm births, even small differences in abilities, special education, and length of education may have broader consequences.     

Breastfeeding and brain development

Although biochemical evidence seems to support the fact that more DHA is incorporated into the brain of breastfed infants compared with formula-fed infants, whether the levels of DHA in the brain are clinically significant is unclear. Because randomized trials cannot be done, this issue is difficult to study. The effects of breastfeeding on developmental outcome in term infants seems to be small or insignificant. For otherwise healthy children the potential differences are not clinically relevant; however, these small differences distributed over an entire population might have a significant effect on society. Although significant methodologic concerns exist, the effects of breastfeeding on preterm infants may be greater than those for term infants. Extremely low birth weight, premature infants (< 750-1000 g) have been found to have IQs that are 13 points lower than term controls and a 50% to 60% risk for requiring special-education services when they are in school. In these infants, small improvements in IQ and neurologic function could have a much greater effect. Further study of neurodevelopmental outcome in premature infants fed breast milk compared with those fed preterm formula are indicated. This information should not change the practice of encouraging breastfeeding of term and preterm infants because other advantages to breastfeeding exist.     

Neurodevelopmental outcomes at 2 and 5 years of age in very-low-birth-weight preterm infants born between 2002 and 2009: A prospective cohort study in Taiwan

BackgroundNeurodevelopmental outcome in preterm infants has been of great importance in recent decades. We determined the prevalence of abnormal neurodevelopmental outcomes and associated risk factors of very-low-birth-weight (VLBW) preterm infants at 2 and 5 years of age.MethodsWe conducted a population-based, prospective cohort study of VLBW preterm infants born between 2002 and 2009 in Taiwan. Sociodemographic, neonatal data, and neurological assessments at 2 and 5 years of age were obtained from the database of Taiwan Premature Infant Follow-up Network.ResultsOf the 6549 VLBW preterm infants included in the study, 5407 (82.56%) survived to discharge; 4105 and 1427 participated in follow-up assessments at age 2 and 5 years, respectively. At age 5 years, 76.87% (1097/1427), 12.05% (172/1427), and 8.76% (125/1427) of children had normal, borderline, and abnormal neurocognitive outcomes, separately. Among the enrolled children, 1385 were followed at both 2-year and 5-year-old. Among the 233 children with abnormal neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 5 years, nearly one-fifth (18.03%, 42/233) had normal or borderline neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 2 years. Among the 154 children with borderline neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 5 years, 71.43% (110/154) had normal or borderline neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 2 years. The risk factors significantly associated with disadvantageous (worsening or remaining unimproved) neurodevelopmental outcomes were lower gestational age, cystic periventricular leukomalacia, and paternal or maternal education ≤12 years.ConclusionAlmost one-fifth of VLBW preterm children with abnormal neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 5 years had normal or borderline neurologic and developmental assessments at age 2 years. For the high risk group such as VLBW preterm children, serial follow-up assessments beyond 2 years of age may be warranted and the eligibility of early intervention service should be revised by the government so proper and targeted intervention can be implemented at earlier age.     

Neuroimaging biomarkers of preterm brain injury: toward developing the preterm connectome

For typically developing infants, the last trimester of fetal development extending into the first post-natal months is a period of rapid brain development. Infants who are born premature face significant risk of brain injury (e.g., intraventricular or germinal matrix hemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia) from complications in the perinatal period and also potential long-term neurodevelopmental disabilities because these early injuries can interrupt normal brain maturation. Neuroimaging has played an important role in the diagnosis and management of the preterm infant. Both cranial US and conventional MRI techniques are useful in diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of preterm brain development and injury. Cranial US is highly sensitive for intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) and provides prognostic information regarding cerebral palsy. Data are limited regarding the utility of MRI as a routine screening instrument for brain injury for all preterm infants. However, MRI might provide diagnostic or prognostic information regarding PVL and other types of preterm brain injury in the setting of specific clinical indications and risk factors. Further development of advanced MR techniques like volumetric MR imaging, diffusion tensor imaging, metabolic imaging (MR spectroscopy) and functional connectivity are necessary to provide additional insight into the molecular, cellular and systems processes that underlie brain development and outcome in the preterm infant. The adult concept of the "connectome" is also relevant in understanding brain networks that underlie the preterm brain. Knowledge of the preterm connectome will provide a framework for understanding preterm brain function and dysfunction, and potentially even a roadmap for brain plasticity. By combining conventional imaging techniques with more advanced techniques, neuroimaging findings will likely be used not only as diagnostic and prognostic tools, but also as biomarkers for long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes, instruments to assess the efficacy of neuroprotective agents and maneuvers in the NICU, and as screening instruments to appropriately select infants for longitudinal developmental interventions.     

Neural conduction abnormality in the brain stem and prevalence of the abnormality in late preterm infants with perinatal problems

Neurodevelopment in late preterm infants has recently attracted considerable interest. The prevalence of brain stem conduction abnormality remains unknown. We examined maximum length sequence brain stem auditory evoked response in 163 infants, born at 33–36 weeks gestation, who had various perinatal problems. Compared with 49 normal term infants without problems, the late preterm infants showed a significant increase in III–V and I–V interpeak intervals at all 91–910/s clicks, particularly at 455 and 910/s (p?<?0.01–0.001). The I–III interval was slightly increased, without statistically significant difference from the controls at any click rates. These results suggest that neural conduction along the, mainly more central or rostral part of, auditory brain stem is abnormal in late preterm infants with perinatal problems. Of the 163 late preterm infant, the number (and percentage rate) of infants with abnormal I–V interval at 91, 227, 455, and 910/s clicks was, respectively, 11 (6.5 %), 17 (10.2 %), 37 (22.3 %), and 31 (18.7 %). The number (and percentage rate) of infants with abnormal III–V interval at these rates was, respectively, 10 (6.0 %), 17 (10.2 %), 28 (16.9), and 36 (21.2 %). Apparently, the abnormal rates were much higher at 455 and 910/s clicks than at lower rates 91 and 227/s. In total, 42 (25.8 %) infants showed abnormal I–V and/or III–V intervals. Conclusion: Conduction in, mainly in the more central part, the brain stem is abnormal in late preterm infants with perinatal problems. The abnormality is more detectable at high- than at low-rate sensory stimulation. A quarter of late preterm infants with perinatal problems have brain stem conduction abnormality.     

Loss of CO2 reactivity of cerebral blood flow is associated with severe brain damage in mechanically ventilated very low birth weight infants.

BACKGROUND: Early detection of pathophysiological factors associated with permanent and severe brain damage in preterm infants requiring intensive care is a major issue in neonatal neurology. The aim of this study was to investigate if an abnormal CO2 reactivity of cerebral blood flow in high risk very low birth weight infants is associated with severe brain injury demonstrated at autopsy or by neurodevelopment examination at 18 months. METHODS: The CO2 reactivity of cerebral blood flow (xenon-133) was measured in 18 mechanically ventilated, severely ill, very low birthweight infants (gestational age 26-32 weeks, birthweight: 630-1360 g) during the first 36 hours of life. Cerebral outcome was assessed on autopsy findings (n = 8) or at the age of 18 months using Bayley developmental scales (n = 10). RESULTS: Eight infants with normal development at 18 months (within mean +/- 2.5 SD of reference group) and two infants with normal cerebral autopsy findings had a median CO2 reactivity of 24.4%/kPa CO2 (interquartile range 14.7-41.2). Two infants with abnormal development (> 2.5 SD below mean) and six infants with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy at autopsy has a median CO2 reactivity of 3.4%/kPa CO2 (interquartile range 8.0-11.7). CONCLUSION: In mechanically ventilated very low birthweight infants low CO2 reactivity of cerebral blood flow (below 10%/kPa CO2) during the first 36 hours of life was associated with poor neurodevelopmental outcome or hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy at autopsy. Loss of CO2 reactivity may play a role in the pathogenesis of hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy. It is a candidate for predicting early severe brain damage in preterm infants requiring intensive care and for controlling the effect of early interventions.     

Infantile hydrocephalus: declining prevalence in preterm infants

The prevalence and aetiological panorama of infantile hydrocephalus in western Sweden have been followed since the late 1960s. A significant increase in the live birth prevalence of very preterm infants with infantile hydrocephalus was found, from 6.99 per 1000 in the birth year period 1973-78 to 25.37 in 1983-86, and owing to an increased survival of very preterm infants with a high risk of hydrocephalus, secondary to an intraventricular haemorrhage occurring in the perinatal period. In the present study covering the birth years 1991-94, a declining prevalence to 13.69 per 1000 very preterm infants was found. In moderately preterm and term groups, mostly with prenatal aetiologies, the prevalence was unchanged. Outcome in surviving children with infantile hydrocephalus remained essentially the same as in previous studies, indicating that the underlying aetiology is the most decisive factor with respect to ensuing neuroimpairments.     

高危晚期早产儿脑病临床特点及磁共振影像学评估

目的了解高危晚期早产儿(LPI)脑病的危险因素、临床特点及磁共振(MRI)影像学变化。方法对2009年1月至2014年12月住院且存在脑损伤高危因素的LPI,进行头颅MRI检查,分析LPI脑病危险因素、临床特点及头颅MRI特征。结果完成MRI检查的LPI共1 007例,影像学符合早产儿脑病患儿313例(31.1%)。LPI脑病中白质损伤占76.7%。LPI脑病的发生与胎龄无相关性,但随着出生体重增加,脑病检出率逐渐增高(P0.05)。Logistic回归分析结果显示:复苏史是早产儿脑病发生的独立危险因素(P0.01)。结论早产儿脑病在高危LPI中亦较常见,特别是脑白质损伤。复苏病史是LPI脑病的独立危险因素,需引起重视。     

Is it correct to correct? Developmental milestones in 555 "normal" preterm infants compared with term infants

To determine whether correction for preterm birth should be applied during developmental assessment, we conducted a prospective national survey of very premature infants (born at less than 32 weeks of gestation); neurodevelopment in the first 2 years was studied with the Dutch child health care developmental assessment. In 555 preterm children who had no evidence of handicap at 2 years of age, the age at which developmental milestones were reached was established. The results were compared with the results of the same assessment in Dutch children born at term. During the first year, the development of the very premature children equaled the development of normal children when full correction was applied. At 2 years of age, development was equal to or better than normal children's development without correction. We conclude that full correction for prematurity should be applied in the first year to avoid overreferral for developmental stimulation, whereas at 2 years of age correction is not necessary.