Traumatic pelvic fractures in children and adolescents

Although traumatic pelvic fractures in children are relatively rare, these injuries are identified in about 5% of children admitted to level 1 trauma centers after blunt trauma.1, 2, 3, 4 Such injuries differ from adult pelvic fractures in important ways and require distinct strategies for management. While the associated mortality rate for children with pelvic fractures is much lower than that for adults, the patient may require urgent surgical intervention for associated life-threatening injuries such as head trauma and abdominal injury. Unstable pelvic ring fractures should be acutely managed using an initial approach similar to that used in adult orthopedic traumatology. Although very few pediatric pelvic fractures will ultimately need surgical treatment, patients with these injuries must be followed over time to confirm proper healing, ensure normal pelvic growth, and address any potential complications. The trauma team suspecting a pelvic fracture in a child must understand the implication of such a finding, identify fracture patterns that increase suspicion of associated injuries, and involve pediatric or adult orthopedic specialists as appropriate during the management of the patient.     

Pediatric Trauma Care: An Ongoing Evolution

Trauma remains the leading cause of death and disability in children despite considerable advances in the treatment of injury in the pediatric population. As we move forward into the 21st century, the challenge will be to develop and implement appropriate triage systems to ensure that severely injured children will be treated at centers with a commitment to their care. Issues of overtriage and undertriage need to be addressed, so that the limited resource of PTCs is not overwhelmed by less severely injured patients or conversely, that the definitive management of severe injuries is not delayed by lengthy periods of evaluation at centers ill equipped to care for injured children. PTCs need to take the lead in the development of such integrated pediatric trauma systems. Finally, the importance of injury prevention strategies needs to be emphasized. The vast majority of injuries in children are potentially preventable. Institutions and individuals with a commitment to the care of those injured must also work toward the prevention of the problem in the first place through a combination of research, education, and advocacy. As those who work in the trauma field know, injury is no accident.     

小儿闭合性肾损伤的治疗(附75例分析)

目的探讨小儿闭合性肾损伤的最佳治疗方案。方法回顾性分析75例小儿闭合性肾损伤临床资料。其中肾被膜下血肿29例,肾实质部分裂伤23例,肾实质完全断裂11例,肾实质碎裂7例,肾蒂伤2例,肾盂输尿管连接处断裂3例。合并其他脏器伤者16例。结果非手术治疗59例,手术治疗16例,切除伤肾11只。74例治愈,死亡1例。结论小儿肾损伤后应尽快判断出肾脏损伤的程度及出血情况,根据病情选择不同的治疗方案;绝大多数闭合性肾损伤可采用非手术治疗。     

Abdominal trauma in infants and children: prompt identification and early management of serious and life-threatening injuries. Part II: Specific injuries and ED management

Evaluation of children with suspected abdominal trauma could be a difficult task. Unique anatomic and physiologic features render vital sign assessment and the physical examination less useful than in the adult population. Awareness of injury patterns and associations will improve the early diagnosis of abdominal trauma. Clinicians must have a complete understanding of common and atypical presentations of children with significant abdominal injuries. Knowledge of the utility and limitations of available laboratory and radiologic adjuncts will assist in accurately identifying abdominal injury. While other obvious injuries (eg, facial, cranial, and extremity trauma) can distract physicians from less obvious abdominal trauma, an algorithmic approach to evaluating and managing children with multisystem trauma will improve overall care and help to identify and treat abdominal injuries in a timely fashion. Finally, physicians must be aware of the capabilities of their own facility to handle pediatric trauma. Protocols must be in place for expediting the transfer of children who require a higher level of care. Knowledge of each of these areas will help to improve the overall care and outcome of children with abdominal trauma.     

Penetrating injuries in children: Is there a message?

OBJECTIVES: To determine the frequency, management and outcome of penetrating trauma in children. METHODS: A retrospective review of penetrating injuries in children under 16 years of age admitted to the Children's Hospital at Westmead (CHW), and deaths reported to the New South Wales Paediatric Trauma Death (NPTD) Registry, from January 1988 to December 2000. Patient details, circumstances of trauma, injuries identified, management and outcome were recorded. RESULTS: Thirty-four children were admitted to the CHW with penetrating injuries during the 13-year period. This represented 0.2% of all trauma admissions, but 3% of those children with major trauma. The injury typically involved a male, school-age child that fell onto a sharp object or was assaulted with a knife or firearm by a parent or person known to them. Twenty-five children (75%) required operative intervention for their injuries and 14 survivors (42%) suffered long-term morbidity. Thirty children were reported to the NPTD Registry over the same interval, accounting for 2.3% of all trauma deaths in New South Wales. Of these, a significant minority was injured by falls from a mower or a tractor towing a machine with blades. CONCLUSIONS: Penetrating injuries are uncommon, but cause serious injury in children. There are two clear groups: (i) those dead at the scene or moribund on arrival, in whom prevention must be the main aim; and (ii) those with stable vital signs. Penetrating wounds should be explored in the operating theatre to exclude major injury. Young children should not ride on mowers or tractors.     

Management of the multiply injured child

Injury is the commonest cause of death and morbidity in children and accounts for most attendances at paediatric emergency departments. However, the incidence of major trauma in UK children remains low. Optimal management of the multiply injured child relies on anticipation and preparation, followed by a standardized, consistent and structured response from healthcare professionals. Initial management involves a primary survey with resuscitation, using an ‘ABC’ approach, and treatment of life-threatening injuries as they arise. The details of this are outlined in this review, highlighting important child-specific factors. Once stabilized, injured children must be assessed by secondary survey to rule out all possible injuries and, if necessary, transferred to an appropriate tertiary unit. Support from regionalized trauma networks and ongoing training for staff is paramount in optimizing outcome of the multiply injured child.     

Morsures de chiens chez l''enfant

Among children's domestic accidents, dog bites are of major concern. Most dog bites result in low severity injuries but some lead to definite esthetic or functional sequelae and require emergency treatment for wound repair and possibly hospitalization in a trauma center. Recommendations for medical and surgical management are presented. Prevention is important: children must be educated early on dog reactions even from the family dog; young children must never be left alone with a dog.     

Pediatric trauma: an approach to the injured child

The approach to the injured child requires great care and clinical acumen to establish the diagnosis and institute appropriate treatment. Loss of life from occult internal hemorrhage or neurologic sequelae from a missed unstable cervical spine injury may be devastating. Yet, physicians in the ED must also know which children need only a careful physical examination, and when laboratory testing or admission is unnecessary. We have described a schema for providing appropriate care to children with trauma in such a way that specific issues about management can be reasonably approached by the emergency physician.     

Management of the multiply injured child

Injury is the commonest cause of death and morbidity in children and accounts for most attendances at paediatric emergency departments. Optimal management of the multiply injured child relies on anticipation and preparation, followed by a standardized, consistent and structured response from healthcare professionals. Staff must be appropriately trained and supported by a regional tertiary paediatric trauma centre. Initial management involves a primary survey with resuscitation, using an ‘ABC’ approach, and treatment of life-threatening injuries as they arise. The details of this are outlined in this review, highlighting important child-specific factors. Once stabilized, injured children must be assessed by secondary survey to rule out all possible injuries and, if necessary, transferred to an appropriate tertiary unit. Support from regionalized tertiary centres and ongoing training for staff is paramount in optimizing outcome of the multiply injured child.     

Multiple trauma in pediatric patients

We analyzed the causes and diagnoses, the treatment, short and long-term outcome of a consecutive series of 70 pediatric polytrauma patients. From 1989 to 1996, 70 children (aged 10 months to 16 years, mean 7.4 years) presented with multiple trauma. A follow-up investigation was performed 4.2 years (mean) after the accident. Traffic accidents (68%) were the leading cause of injuries. Among all injuries (mean ISS 24.6 range 17–57), injuries of the head/neck area were most frequent (87%) followed by extremity fractures (76%) and 135 operations were performed on 55 children, mostly for fracture stabilisation. All multiple injured children survived. At discharge 25 children were still impaired (36% of 70). At follow-up 58 patients were revisited, 11 (19% of 58) presented with impairments, 8 of those (73% of 11) following severe head trauma. This study showed a 10% rate of late impairment due to the severity of the primary head trauma.     

Prehospital Evaluation and Management of Traumatic Brain Injury in Children

The care of patients with TBI has improved dramatically over the past 3 decades with an estimated 20% reduction in mortality rates, in part due to advances in diagnosis and prehospital care. However, a great deal of variation still exists in practice with respect to the diagnosis and management of pediatric head trauma. Training programs should be developed to educate EMS providers and medical control physicians on the Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines for management of TBI, taking into consideration aspects of care unique to children. The effect of utilization of these guidelines on patient outcomes should subsequently be evaluated. In the future, early intervention with antioxidants, glucocorticoids, and immunosuppressants may become part of trials in the prehospital setting aimed to decrease secondary injury.Prehospital providers are often responsible for the triage of children with minor TBI. Current practice in acute care settings ranges from clinical observation of children with minor TBI who are grossly intact neurologically, to obtaining plain films, CT scans, and rarely magnetic resonance imaging. When indicated, the ideal imaging modality for head injury is noncontrast CT scan, which can reliably detect both intracranial injury and skull fracture. The child with a normal neurological examination after isolated head trauma and a negative CT scan is at very low risk of later developing intracranial abnormalities and may be safely discharged home with close observation. Children who have had a concussion must not return to contact sports until they are completely symptom free both at rest and on exertion. At that time, a gradual return to sports is recommended. These children should be referred for neurocognitive screening and assessment when indicated.     

Blunt renal injuries in Turkish children: a review of 205 cases

A retrospective analysis of the medical records of 205 children with renal injuries secondary to blunt abdominal trauma is used to make recommendations regarding the initial diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in this type of patient. It was found that the absence of hematuria on initial urinalysis does not exclude a serious renal injury. Thus, following blunt abdominal trauma, all children should undergo imaging procedures to exclude renal injury, whether they have hematuria or not. Ultrasound is a good initial screening procedure in all patients. Computed tomography is recommended for the definitive evaluation of suspected major renal injuries. Since even major renal injuries may heal without surgical intervention, conservative management is the recommended initial treatment of choice. Surgery is reserved for those children who are hemodynamically unstable and those that develop complications.     

Blunt Abdominal Trauma in the Pediatric Patient

Timely diagnosis and a rational approach to operative versus nonoperative management of intra-abdominal injuries in children are critical to providing optimal pediatric trauma care. Suspicion of IAI is based on the mechanism of injury and findings on examination. Subsequent evaluation and management of IAI is influenced by the patient's hemodynamic status and the presence of extra-abdominal injuries. The hemodynamically unstable patient with suspected IAI requires emergent laparotomy. The hemodynamically stable patient is evaluated using laboratory and imaging studies, most importantly, CT of the abdomen. Stable patients with hepatic or splenic injuries are almost always managed nonoperatively, whereas small bowel, colon, and pancreatic injuries with main duct disruption require laparotomy.     

儿童腹部损伤的诊断与治疗

目的 探讨儿童腹部损伤的保守治疗及手术探查的指征,提高儿童腹部损伤的诊疗水平.方法 回顾性分析我院89例腹部损伤患儿的临床资料,根据损伤部位情况进行分类,并逐一对其进行分析.结果 (1)89例腹部损伤患儿中,25例肝损伤,1例行剖腹探查;48例脾损伤,46例保守治疗,1例行脾切除术,1例予修补;14例胃肠道损伤,4例急诊剖腹探查,1例住院4 d后出现迟发穿孔;8例胰腺损伤,6例肾、肾上腺挫伤,予保守治疗;1例子宫、膀胱损伤,急诊手术治疗.(2)与成人不同,肝脾损伤患儿绝大多数经保守治疗能治愈,静脉补液后输血仍超过40 ml/kg,且血压不稳定者应及时手术探查.(3)CT检查对怀疑有胃肠道损伤,而不宜行腹部X线立位平片者有重要临床意义,合并气腹或腹胀明显加重,或出现腹膜炎表现的患儿,应及时手术探查,尤其注意迟发消化道穿孔的可能.(4)排除有胰腺横断的患儿,胰腺损伤多应保守治疗.(5)膀胱及子宫损伤患儿,外伤多较严重,需及时剖腹探查.结论 基层医院儿童腹部损伤应高度重视,实质脏器损伤导致的内出血是患儿死亡的最主要原因,空腔脏器损伤延误诊治是导致患儿死亡的另一重要原因,因此,早期准确诊断,积极治疗,以及综合处理其他严重的合并伤、并发症是成功救治该类患儿的关键.     

Splenic injury in children: A 10 year experience

Abstract The aim of this report was to review retrospectively the management of splenic trauma at a major Australian tertiary referral centre (Westmead Hospital) over a 10 year period. Forty-nine patients (0-15 years of age) with documented blunt splenic trauma were identified. The causes of splenic injury were road trauma (73%) and falls (27%). There were 22 minor injuries (Injury severity score [ISS] <16) and 27 severe injuries (ISS ≥16). All nine deaths were related to road trauma (mean ISS = 59). The investigation most commonly used was CT scanning (47%). Peritoneal lavage was performed in six patients (12%). Management involved non-operative care in 29 patients (57%), exploratory laparotomy alone in 5 (10%), splenic salvage in 2 (4%) and splenectomy in 13 (26%). This experience supports the view that non-operative management of splenic injury in haemodynamically stable children is safe and is the preferred treatment. Experienced assessment and meticulous observation is necessary. Laparotomy is indicated if there is continuing haemodynamic instability despite resuscitation. Operative management is aimed at splenic salvage with splenectomy being reserved for uncontrolled haemorrhage.     

Management of pancreatic and duodenal injuries in pediatric patients

Diagnosis of duodenal and pancreatic injuries is frequently delayed, and optimal treatment is often controversial. Fourteen children with duodenal and/or pancreatic injuries secondary to blunt trauma were treated between 1980 and 1997. The pancreas was injured in all but 1 child. An associated duodenal injury was present in 4. The preoperative diagnosis was suspected in only 6 patients based on clinical signs and ultrasonography. One patient was treated successfully conservatively; all the others required surgical management. At operation, three procedures were used: peripancreatic drainage, suture of the gland or duodenum with drainage, and primary distal pancreatic resection without splenectomy. A duodenal resection with reconstruction by duodeno-duodenostomy was performed in 1 case. The overall complication rate was 14%: 1 fistula and 1 pseudocyst. Pancreatic ductal transection was recognized 3 days after the initial laparotomy by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The mortality was 7%; 1 patient died from septic and neurologic complications. When the diagnosis of pancreatic ductal injuries is a major problem, ERCP may be a useful diagnostic procedure. Pancreatic injuries without a transected duct may often be treated conservatively. The surgical or conservative management of duodenal hematomas is still controversial; other duodenal injuries often need surgical treatment. Accepted: 26 April 1999     

The management of children with head injuries

Head injury is the most common traumatic cause of death and disability in childhood. Standards of care have been recommended for the treatment of children with major head injuries. Treatment should initially follow APLS guidelines with the main emphasis on prevention of secondary brain damage. There are criteria for when to perform an X-ray or CT scan in children, but CT is the only investigation that excludes intracranial injury. Children with minor head injuries can usually be safely discharged home with parental advice. For those children requiring further management, national guidelines need to be developed as the majority of treatment recommendations are based on adult studies.     

Paediatric post-injury management: A hospital-based review of deaths

In order to begin to evaluate the need for an integrated trauma management service for injured children, a retrospective review of deaths following admission to a suburban teaching hospital was conducted. The medical records and coroners' reports for 64 consecutive cases over 68 months were reviewed, looking for errors in care which may have contributed to fatal outcomes. There was a male predominance (64%). The main causes of death were pedestrian injuries (42%), drownings (20%), injuries to vehicular passengers (17%) and injuries to cyclists (13%). Errors, often multiple, occurred in 29 cases (45%). Errors most frequently involved airway control and ventilatory support (25%), volume replacement (19%) and delays in performing essential investigations (13%). Errors were most frequent at the referring hospitals (49% [17 of/35 referred cases], compared with 14% at the teaching hospital), and principally involved multiply injured victims of blunt trauma (81%, 13 of 16 patients). In only three cases (5%) would better management have salvaged the patient. This can be explained partly by the predominance of what were judged to be irretrievable intracranial injuries (90%) in patients suffering blunt injuries. In contrast, an analysis of the same patient group revealed that in 30-50% the fatality could have been prevented by the full application of well recognized safety strategies. While strategies such as triage and trauma teams should reduce the error rate, it is yet to be proven that optimal post-injury care will significantly reduce mortality.     

Abdominal trauma in infants and children: prompt identification and early management of serious and life-threatening injuries. Part I: injury patterns and initial assessment

Evaluation of children with abdominal trauma can be a difficult process. Unique anatomic features predispose children to specific injuries and potentially make identification of life-threatening injuries difficult. While Part I of this review discusses the initial assessment and diagnostic testing in children with abdominal trauma, Part II will review specific injuries and ED management of children with possible abdominal trauma. Knowledge of each of these factors will improve the ability of general and pediatric emergency physicians to expeditiously identify children with potential serious injury and initiate appropriate treatment.     

Pancreatitis and pancreatic trauma

Many pancreatic disorders in children benefit from a multidisciplinary approach. This is especially true for acute and chronic pancreatitis which has numerous and diverse etiologies. The current management of pancreatitis is reviewed, focusing on recent advances. Children with pancreatitis must be fully investigated, not least to select out those who benefit from specific surgical interventions. The treatment of pancreas divisum, pseudocysts, and fibrosing pancreatitis deserve particular consideration. Management of pancreatic injuries involving the main pancreatic duct is both variable and controversial. Treatment should be individualized depending on the site of injury, timing of referral, presence of associated injuries, and institutional expertise.