Glycaemic control in insulin requiring diabetes patients receiving exclusive enteral tube feeding in an acute hospital setting

Aims

Optimising glycaemic control for insulin requiring individuals during enteral feeding is important but difficult. We compare 3 insulin regimens with the aim of improving glucose control and reducing hypoglycaemia.

Methods

Comparison of 3 insulin/feed regimens: (1) A 20 h feed using a 30:70 premixed insulin (2) Three bolus (4 h) feeds combined with short acting analogue insulin and a basal long acting insulin. (3) A 24 h feed combined with a long acting analogue insulin. The study combined a retrospective analysis of regimen (1) with consecutive prospective analyses of (2) and (3).

Results

Glucose concentrations were suboptimal with higher values during the feeds (12.6 mmol/L ± 4.4 vs 10.3 ± 4.1 p < 0.001). Although there was no overall difference in glucose control between groups there was a reduction in hypoglycaemia during the feed in the bolus group (no hypoglycaemia during intermittent feeds p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Glucose concentrations were relatively high overall. Short bolus feeding appears to reduce the frequency of hypoglycaemia. This is of clinical significance for this patient group.     

2型糖尿病合并脑卒中患者肠内营养期间血糖控制方案的探讨

目的探讨2型糖尿病合并脑卒中患者进行持续滴注胃肠内营养期间的血糖控制方案。方法选取52例2型糖尿病合并脑卒中需进行营养泵胃肠内营养的患者,随机分为两组：胰岛素静脉泵入组26例,采用持续静脉胰岛素泵入,胰岛素剂量根据随机血糖进行调整;甘精胰岛素组：26例,采用每日1次甘精胰岛素皮下注射,根据空腹血糖调整用量。两组随机血糖目标值为7．8—10．0mmol／L。其他治疗措施基本相同。结果入院第3日,胰岛素静脉泵入组血糖控制明显优于甘精胰岛素组（P〈0．05）,入院第7日两组日均血糖值已无明显差异,均能达到控制目标,但胰岛素静脉泵入组的血糖波动性（血糖标准差和最大血糖波动幅度）明显大于甘精胰岛素组（P〈0．05）。结论在2型糖尿病合并脑卒中患者进行持续滴注胃肠内营养期间,先使用静脉胰岛素泵2～3天有效控制过高的血糖,而后过渡为甘精胰岛素治疗是相对安全、有效的治疗方案。     

Glycaemic risk assessment in children and young people with Type 1 diabetes mellitus

Aim To ascertain if those with diabetes (and their carers) ascribe a similar level of risk to blood glucose control as healthcare professionals. Methods We used a structured questionnaire to ask fifty healthcare professionals how ‘dangerous’ a given blood glucose value was. Their answers were modelled to produce an algorithm of assessed risk. To examine if patients (and their carers) would apportion a similar level of risk to that of healthcare professionals, the same questionnaire was issued to fifty children and adolescents with Type 1 diabetes. For patients under 8 years old the carers completed the questionnaires (n = 23). Both patient and carers together completed the questionnaire for those aged 8–11 years (n = 15) and patients over the age of 11 years completed the questionnaire themselves (n = 12). The median results and interquartile range of the assessed level of risk, as determined by the two groups, were compared using a generalized linear model. Results A significant difference (P < 0.0001) was identified between the median risk assessments of the two groups. The zero level of assessed risk was upward shifted in the patient group by 0.8 mmol/l and indicated the patients’ view of risk increased. Conclusions Patients with Type 1 diabetes (and their carers) evaluate the risk from blood glucose values differently from healthcare professionals. The euglycaemic state (zero ascribed risk) that patients chose was 0.8 mmol/l greater than that of healthcare professionals, indicating, perhaps, hypoglycaemia avoidance, a more pragmatic approach or less exposure to current trends in glycaemic control.     

Clinical management of post-pyloric enteral feeding in children

Post-pyloric feeding (PF) allows the administration of enteral nutrition beyond the pylorus, either into the duodenum or, ideally, into the jejunum. The main indications of PF are: upper gastrointestinal tract obstructions, pancreatic rest (e.g., acute pancreatitis), gastric dysmotility (e.g., critically ill patients and chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction) or severe gastroesophageal reflux with risk of aspiration (e.g., neurological disability). Physiological and clinical evidence derives from adults, but can also be pertinent to children. This review will discuss the practical management and potential clinical applications of PF in pediatric patients. Some key studies pertaining to the physiological changes during PF will also be considered because they support the strategy of PF management.     

Challenges in the management of people with diabetes and cancer

Although micro‐ and macrovascular complications of diabetes are the most important cause of mortality and morbidity in people with diabetes, it is increasingly recognized that diabetes increases the risk of developing cancer. Diabetes and cancer commonly co‐exist, and outcomes in people with both conditions are poorer than in those who have cancer but no diabetes. There is no randomized trial evidence that treating hyperglycaemia in people with cancer improves outcomes, but therapeutic nihilism should be avoided, and a personalized approach to managing hyperglycaemia in people with cancer is needed. This review aims to outline the link between diabetes therapies and cancer, and discuss the reasons why glucose should be actively managed people with both. In addition, we discuss clinical challenges in the management of hyperglycaemia in cancer, specifically in relation to glucocorticoids, enteral feeding and end‐of‐life care.     

The inpatient management of physical activity in young people with anorexia nervosa

This study investigates the management of physical activity in young inpatients with anorexia nervosa. Through telephone interviews and postal surveys inpatient units across the UK were asked about written documents regarding physical activity management, how they viewed healthy exercise, how they assessed physical fitness to engage in activity, the management approaches taken, provision of education and support around this issue and range of activities provided. Results indicated that a variety of approaches were taken, with little consensus between units, although the majority of approaches did involve some form of restriction, frequently determined by weight criteria. There were few substantial written documents to guide practice and a range of interpretations of healthy exercise. The findings are discussed and suggestions made for research to explore this area further and to inform the development of effective interventions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.     

Psychological adaptive difficulties and their management during COVID-19 pandemic in people with diabetes mellitus

Background and aimsPeople with diabetes have multiple psychosocial issues related to diabetes and its complications and this may be exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsWe reviewed the psychological adaptative difficulties in people with diabetes especially during natural disasters including the prevailing COVID-19 pandemic.ResultsThere are significant concerns regarding worsening of glycemic control, unavailability of appropriate medicines, inaccessibility to health care or acquiring SARS- CoV-2 infection and subsequent poorer outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although there are some guidance documents for managing diabetes and associated complications during COVID-19 pandemic but very few address the psychological issues in people with diabetes. We discuss the psychological adaptive difficulties and an approach to address the psychosocial concerns in people with diabetes during the COVID-19 pandemic.ConclusionsPeople with diabetes have significant diabetes distress and psychological adaptive difficulties that is aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic. An integrated multidisciplinary approach is needed to manage the prevailing psychological issues amongst people with diabetes during the COVID-19 pandemic.     

Glycaemic control during early pregnancy and fetal malformations in women with Type I diabetes mellitus

Aims/hypothesis. To assess the relation between glycaemic control in early pregnancy and the risk of congenital malformations in offspring of mothers with Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus.¶Methods. From 1988–1997, we prospectively collected data from 691 pregnancies and 709 offspring of 488 women with Type I diabetes in a specific geographic area in Southern Finland. Glycated haemoglobin A_{1 c} at less than 14 weeks of gestation was used as the indicator of glycaemic control. The malformations were diagnosed either by ultrasonography in pregnancy or during the neonatal period. We also studied 729 non-selected control pregnancies in women without diabetes.¶Results. The numbers of major fetal malformations were 30 (4.2 %) in patients with Type I diabetes and 10 (1.2 %) in the control subjects (relative risk 3.1; 95 % confidence interval: 1.6 to 6.2). Even women whose HbA_{1 c} was only slightly raised (5.6 to 6.8 %, ie 2.0 to 5.9 standard deviation units) showed a relative risk of 3.0 (95 % confidence interval: 1.2 to 7.5). Haemoglobin A_{1 c} retained its statistically significant association with the occurrence of malformations after adjusting for White's class, age at onset of diabetes, duration of diabetes, parity, smoking and participation in pre-pregnancy counselling.¶Conclusions/interpretation. Even a slightly raised HbA_{1 c} during early pregnancy in women with Type I diabetes carries an increased risk for fetal malformations. Therefore normoglycaemia should be strived for during early pregnancy. [Diabetologia (2000) 43: 79–82]     

Ultrasonic study of gallbladder motility during exclusive continuous enteral feeding

Total parenteral nutrition may be responsible for gallbladder sludge and lithiasis which might possibly be related to gallbladder bile stasis. Gallbladder motility has not yet been studied during constant-rate enteral nutrition. We performed serial ultrasonographic studies of gallbladder volume and contents in ten patients receiving constant-rate enteral nutrition during 35 +/- 17 days. Each patient had two weekly examinations at 9 AM and 2 PM on the same day. None of the patients developed gallbladder sludge or lithiasis. The gallbladder was frequently seen to be contracted. Mean gallbladder volume during constant-rate enteral nutrition was not significantly different from mean gallbladder volume after Bladex. Individual gallbladder volume changed significantly from one measurement to another. This study showed that gallbladder motility is preserved during constant-rate enteral nutrition. The persistence of gallbladder contractions may prevent the development of biliary sludge ad lithiasis.     

Glycaemic control and sepsis risk in adults with type 1 diabetes

Aims

To study the association between glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) and sepsis in adults with type 1 diabetes, and to explore the relationship between HbA1c and mortality among individuals who developed sepsis.

Materials and Methods

We included 33 549 adult individuals with type 1 diabetes recorded in the Swedish National Diabetes Register between January 2005 and December 2015. We used multivariable Cox regression and restricted cubic spline analyses to study the relationship between HbA1c values and sepsis occurrence and association between HbA1c and mortality among those with sepsis.

Results

In total, 713 (2.1%) individuals developed sepsis during the study period. Compared with the HbA1c reference interval of 48-52 mmol/mol (6.5-6.9%), the adjusted hazard ratio for sepsis was: 2.50 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.18-5.29] for HbA1c <43 mmol/mol; 1.88 (95% CI 0.96-3.67) for HbA1c 43-47 mmol/mol; 1.78 (95% CI 1.09-2.89) for HbA1c 53-62 mmol/mol; 1.86 (95% CI 1.14-3.03) for HbA1c 63-72 mmol/mol; 3.15 (95% CI 1.91-5.19) for HbA1c 73-82 mmol/mol; and 4.26 (95% CI 2.53-7.16) for HbA1c >82 mmol/mol. On multivariable restricted cubic spline analysis, we found a J-shaped association between HbA1c and sepsis risk, with the lowest risk observed at HbA1c of approximately 53 mmol/mol. We found no association between HbA1c and mortality among those individuals who developed sepsis.

Conclusions

In our nationwide observational study of adult individuals with type 1 diabetes we found a J-shaped relationship between HbA1c and risk of sepsis, with the lowest risk at HbA1c levels about 53 mmol/mol (7.0%). HbA1c was not associated with mortality in individuals affected by sepsis.     

Glycaemic control and diabetes care utilization in young adults with Type 1 diabetes1

Objectives To explore how glycaemic control in young adults is related to diabetes care utilization during the transition to adult diabetes care and if these variables differ between males and females. Methods This is a retrospective, longitudinal design following patients’ records from age 18–24 years. Adolescents (n = 104) connected to one paediatric outpatient clinic and referred to six different adult clinics were included. Data were collected regarding gender, age at diagnosis and transfer, yearly glycated haemoglobin (HbA_1c) and body mass index, severe hypoglycaemia and diabetic ketoacidosis, retinopathy and diabetes care utilization. Results HbA_1c decreased over time in females (P = 0.004) but not in males. Less than 10% had HbA_1c in the recommended range during the study period. The decrease in severe hypoglycaemia and diabetic ketoacidosis was not significant. The prevalence of background retinopathy increased from 5 to 29% during the study period (P < 0.001). Mean transfer age was 19.8 years. The youths visited the paediatric clinic more often than the adult clinic (P < 0.001) and females visited adult care more often than males (P = 0.04). There was a steady decrease in the number of visits/year over time (P < 0. 001). Poor glycaemic control was associated with more visits for both males and females (P = 0.005) in adult care. Conclusions As there was no gender difference in the relation between HbA_1c and the number of visits in adult diabetes care, the higher frequency of visits in adult care for females cannot be solely explained by their glycaemic control. Gender differences regarding diabetes care utilization should be further explored.     

Glycaemic effects of bread and marmalade in insulin-dependent diabetes

The glycaemic responses of 12 C-peptide negative insulin-dependent diabetics were studied following four breakfasts with different carbohydrate sources. Total energy content of the meals was the usual for each subject, carbohydrate supplying 55% and fat 32%. The meals comprised: wholemeal bread with margarine; white bread with margarine; marmalade made with sucrose, and cheddar cheese; and marmalade (22% of total energy) on wholemeal bread with margarine. The study demonstrated powerfully that there were no statistically significant or clinically relevant differences between the meals in post-prandial glucose peak elevation, or in incremental area under the blood glucose curve to 120 mins. On these grounds, sucrose, in amounts considered acceptable to the general population, need not be prohibited from diabetic diets.     

Prediction of transient ischemic attack and minor stroke in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus

AimsPeople with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) have an increased risk of transient ischemic attack and minor stroke (TIA) which are frequently followed by an ischemic stroke. We aimed to develop a predictive model for incident TIA in people with T2DM.MethodsWe pooled data from two longitudinal cohort studies, Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) and the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS), using a two-stage approach. First, we used a random effects model to interpolate risk factors of individuals between follow-up exams. Second, we used forward selection to develop a proportional hazards model for time to incident TIA. We internally validated our model using 10-fold cross-validation.ResultsAmong 3575 participants with T2DM, mean (SD) age was 60 (10) years and body mass index was 30 (6) kg/m2. Sixty-nine incident TIAs occurred during 38,364 person-years of follow-up. The multivariable model included age at diagnosis of diabetes (hazard ratio 1.13 (95% confidence interval: 1.05,1.21) per year), systolic blood pressure (1.25 (1.04,1.49) per 10 mmHg), a quadratic function of diastolic blood pressure, and history of congestive heart failure (2.08 (1.26, 3.42)). The median cross-validated Harrell's C-index was 0.80.ConclusionBlood pressure and heart failure are risk factors for the earliest stages of cerebrovascular disease.     

脑卒中患者康复期间跌倒的特点及危险因素分析

目的探讨脑卒中患者康复期间跌倒的特点及危险因素。方法对95例脑卒中患者康复期间根据是否跌倒分为跌倒组及非跌倒组,分析跌倒的特点,对可能影响卒中跌倒的危险因素进行多因素Logistic回归分析。结果 95例中跌倒者21例(22.1%)。首次跌倒时间:入院1个月14例(66.7%),1~2个月5例(23.8%),2个月~出院2例(9.5%)。白天跌倒14例(66.7%),夜间跌倒7例(33.3%)。跌倒地点:床边10例(47.6%),走廊7例(33.3%),卫生间4例(19.0%)。反复跌倒5例(23.8%)。严重程度:无异常2例(9.5%),软组织损伤16例(76.2%),骨折3例(14.3%)。跌倒组Barthel生活指数(BI)评分在入院及出院均低于非跌倒组(U=11.224、12.344,均P0.05)。单因素分析显示年龄、既往跌倒史、肢体偏瘫、意识障碍、谵妄、视力损害、感觉障碍、失用、单侧空间忽略、小便障碍、大便障碍、使用精神药物、独立行走、长谷川痴呆量表(HDS-R)评分下降以及住院时间长为跌倒的危险因素。多因素Logistic回归分析示既往跌倒史(OR=1.85,95%CI:1.26~2.81)、偏瘫(右侧OR=2.37,95%CI:1.62~4.59;左侧OR=2.47,95%CI:1.46~4.78)、视力损害(OR=2.31,95%CI:1.31~5.02)、感觉障碍(OR=2.38,95%CI:1.42~4.68)、单侧空间忽略(OR=3.44,95%CI:2.82~5.38)、使用精神药物(OR=1.36,95%CI:1.01~1.72)、独立行走(OR=1.36,95%CI:1.62~2.36)以及HDS-R评分低(OR=3.02,95%CI:1.08~7.47)为跌倒的独立危险因素。结论跌倒在脑卒中患者康复期间常见,既往跌倒史、偏瘫、视力损害、感觉障碍、单侧空间忽略、使用精神药物、独立行走以及HDS-R评分低为跌倒的独立危险因素。     

Changes in arterial oxygen saturation before and after enteral feeding tube insertion in dysphagic stroke patients

OBJECTIVE: to determine whether insertion of nasogastric or percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy feeding tubes is associated with hypoxaemia. METHODS: dysphagic stroke patients had their arterial oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry continuously for 10 minutes before, during and after tube insertion. RESULTS: in 14 patients nasogastric tube insertion had little effect on oxygen saturation. Six patients maintained oxygen saturation during percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy insertion (whilst on 2 litres oxygen/min) but had a significantly lower median oxygen saturation (P = 0.03) after the procedure (when oxygen was discontinued) and four of these had oxygen saturation of < or =90%. CONCLUSIONS: in this small group of stroke patients, difficult insertions of nasogastric and percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tubes were associated with moderate hypoxaemia. Clinicians should be aware of the potential impact of tube insertion and ensure patients are appropriately monitored and if necessary receive supplemental oxygen, after as well as during the procedure.