Chronic shoulder pain: part I. Evaluation and diagnosis

Shoulder pain is defined as chronic when it has been present for longer than six months. Common conditions that can result in chronic shoulder pain include rotator cuff disorders, adhesive capsulitis, shoulder instability, and shoulder arthritis. Rotator cuff disorders include tendinopathy, partial tears, and complete tears. A clinical decision rule that is helpful in the diagnosis of rotator cuff tears includes pain with overhead activity, weakness on empty can and external rotation tests, and a positive impingement sign. Adhesive capsulitis can be associated with diabetes and thyroid disorders. Clinical presentation includes diffuse shoulder pain with restricted passive range of motion on examination. Acromioclavicular osteoarthritis presents with superior shoulder pain, acromioclavicular joint tenderness, and a painful cross-body adduction test. In patients who are older than 50 years, glenohumeral osteoarthritis usually presents as gradual pain and loss of motion. In patients younger than 40 years, glenohumeral instability generally presents with a history of dislocation or subluxation events. Positive apprehension and relocation are consistent with the diagnosis. Imaging studies, indicated when diagnosis remains unclear or management would be altered, include plain radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasonography, and computed tomography scans. Plain radiographs may help diagnose massive rotator cuff tears, shoulder instability, and shoulder arthritis. Magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography are preferred for rotator cuff disorders. For shoulder instability, magnetic resonance imaging arthrogram is preferred over magnetic resonance imaging.     

Introduction of a new physical examination procedure for the differentiation of acromioclavicular joint lesions and subacromial impingement.

OBJECTIVE: To present a new physical examination procedure that may assist in differentiating acromioclavicular joint lesions from subacromial impingement lesions. DISCUSSION: The acromioclavicularjoint differential test is performed by applying downward pressure over the lateral one third of the clavicle while passively inducing slight' adduction, external rotation, and forced forward flexion to the humerus while the patient is in the seated position. Although similar mechanisms have been described, the acromioclavicular joint differential test is a new, previously unreported examination procedure. CONCLUSION: This article describes a new test to differentiate between acromioclavicular joint lesions and subacromial impingement. On the basis of its mechanism, the acromioclavicular joint differential test may provide the examiner with an additional tool in the differential diagnosis of acromioclavicularjoint lesions and subacromial impingement in the patient with shoulder pain. Although this test has been used by the author in a clinical setting, validation data are not yet available.     

Biomechanics during cross-body lunging in individuals with and without painful cam and/or pincer morphology

BackgroundFemoroacetabular impingement is a patho-mechanical hip condition that can lead to restrictions in hip motion, particularly in end-range hip flexion, adduction and/or internal rotation. Radiographic evidence of femoroacetabular impingement – cam and/or pincer morphology - is prevalent in the general and athletic populations. There is, however, a lack of studies that have analyzed the performance of sport-specific movements in people possessing these morphologies. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare cross-body lunge biomechanics between individuals with and without painful cam and/or pincer morphology.MethodsThis was an exploratory, cross-sectional study where nine participants with cam and/or pincer morphology and symptoms, thirteen participants with asymptomatic cam and/or pincer morphology, and eleven pain-free controls performed the cross-body lunge during a single session. Trunk, pelvis, hip, knee and ankle kinematics, as well as hip, knee and ankle kinetics and vertical ground reaction forces were examined.FindingsOverall, the groups performed the movement similarly, with most variables statistically similar between groups. However, pelvis sagittal plane excursion throughout the entire cross-body lunge was significantly larger in those with cam and/or pincer morphology and symptoms compared to those with asymptomatic cam and/or pincer morphology (P = .046, effect size = 0.98).InterpretationThe results of this study show that cross-body lunge performance is similar across individuals with and without painful cam and/or pincer morphology. However, future research should aim to better understand pelvis biomechanics during sporting activities, as pelvis sagittal plane excursion may have important implications in rehabilitation and sport performance.     

三重固定纽扣钢板肩锁关节复位的生物力学

背景:研究表明喙锁韧带在维持肩锁关节的稳定性中起重要作用,因而重建喙锁韧带至关重要.目的:对比观察三重固定纽扣钢板重建肩锁关节复位的生物力学性能. 方法:采集新鲜肩关节标本15具,造成肩锁关节脱位,分别行三重固定纽扣钢板重建和双Endobutton钢板重建,进行生物力学应力分析,对照比较两者重建肩锁关节的性能和效果. 结果与结论:三重固定纽扣钢板技术在应力-应变关系中,强度比正常喙锁韧带和双Endobutton钢板分别高25%和15%,弹性模量分别高17%和14%,轴向刚度分别高24%和14%,差异均有显著性意义(P < 0.05). 结果提示,三重固定纽扣钢板重建肩锁关节的生物力学性能,在强度、刚度均远超过初始的喙锁韧带的生物力学性能,而三重固定纽扣钢板重建肩锁关节复位的性能和效果比双Endobutton钢板重建更具有力学上的优势.     

Interobserver reliability of physical examination of shoulder girdle

The object of this study was to assess interobserver reliability in 23 tests concerning physical examination of the shoulder girdle. A physical therapist and a physical therapist/manual therapist independently performed a physical examination of the shoulder girdle in 91 patients with shoulder complaints of varying severity and duration. The observers assessed 23 items in total: active and passive abductions, passive external rotation, hand in neck (HIN) test, hand in back (HIB) test, impingement test according to Neer, springing test of the first rib and joint play test of the acromioclavicular joint. The interobserver reliability was evaluated by means of a Cohen's Kappa, the weighted Kappa and the intraclass correlation (ICC). Criteria for acceptable reliability were: Kappa value>or=0.60, ICC>or=0.75 or an absolute agreement>or=80%. The results showed that Kappa values varied from 0.09 (springing test first rib, stiffness) to 0.66 (springing test first rib, pain), weighted Kappa varied from 0.35 (pain during HIB) to 0.73 (range of motion HIB) and ICC varied from 0.54 (abduction passive starting point painful arc) to 0.96 (active and passive ranges of motion in abduction). In total 11 (48%) items fulfilled the criteria of acceptable reliability. In conclusion, there appears to be a great deal of variation in the reliability of the tests used in the physical examination of the shoulder girdle. Over 50% of the tests did not meet the statistical criteria for acceptable reliability.     

Psychometric Properties of the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia-11 (TSK-11)

The aim of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of an abbreviated version of the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK) in a clinical sample of patients with chronic pain. Chronic pain patients (n = 276) seeking treatment at an interdisciplinary treatment center completed self-report questionnaires including the TSK-13, and 2 tests of physical functioning. Four competing models of the TSK were tested using confirmatory factor analysis. Internal consistency was assessed, as were discriminant evidence of construct validity and concurrent criterion-related validity. Incremental validity was assessed with hierarchical multiple regressions controlling for pain severity. The analyses indicated that an 11-item, 2-factor structure best fit the data. The first factor, somatic focus, consisted of 5 items, while the second factor, activity avoidance, was comprised of 6 items. The TSK-11 scales demonstrated acceptable levels of internal consistency, as well as evidence of discriminant, concurrent criterion-related, and incremental validity. Somatic focus uniquely predicted perceived disability while activity avoidance uniquely predicted actual physical performance, controlling for pain severity. The 2-factor structure of the TSK-11 was found to be a brief, reliable, and valid measure of fear of movement/(re)injury for chronic pain patients. We recommend that the TSK-11 be used in future research and in clinical settings.     

Diagnosis of sacroiliac joint pain: validity of individual provocation tests and composites of tests

Previous research indicates that physical examination cannot diagnose sacroiliac joint (SIJ) pathology. Earlier studies have not reported sensitivities and specificities of composites of provocation tests known to have acceptable inter-examiner reliability. This study examined the diagnostic power of pain provocation SIJ tests singly and in various combinations, in relation to an accepted criterion standard. In a blinded criterion-related validity design, 48 patients were examined by physiotherapists using pain provocation SIJ tests and received an injection of local anaesthetic into the SIJ. The tests were evaluated singly and in various combinations (composites) for diagnostic power. All patients with a positive response to diagnostic injection reported pain with at least one SIJ test. Sensitivity and specificity for three or more of six positive SIJ tests were 94% and 78%, respectively. Receiver operator characteristic curves and areas under the curve were constructed for various composites. The greatest area under the curve for any two of the best four tests was 0.842. In conclusion, composites of provocation SIJ tests are of value in clinical diagnosis of symptomatic SIJ. Three or more out of six tests or any two of four selected tests have the best predictive power in relation to results of intra-articular anaesthetic block injections. When all six provocation tests do not provoke familiar pain, the SIJ can be ruled out as a source of current LBP.     

三重固定纽扣钢板肩锁关节复位的生物力学

背景：研究表明喙锁韧带在维持肩锁关节的稳定性中起重要作用,因而重建喙锁韧带至关重要。目的：对比观察三重固定纽扣钢板重建肩锁关节复位的生物力学性能。方法：采集新鲜肩关节标本15具,造成肩锁关节脱位,分别行三重固定纽扣钢板重建和双Endobutton钢板重建,进行生物力学应力分析,对照比较两者重建肩锁关节的性能和效果。结果与结论：三重固定纽扣钢板技术在应力-应变关系中,强度比正常喙锁韧带和双Endobutton钢板分别高25%和15%,弹性模量分别高17%和14%,轴向刚度分别高24%和14%,差异均有显著性意义（P〈0.05）。结果提示,三重固定纽扣钢板重建肩锁关节的生物力学性能,在强度、刚度均远超过初始的喙锁韧带的生物力学性能,而三重固定纽扣钢板重建肩锁关节复位的性能和效果比双Endobutton钢板重建更具有力学上的优势。     

Hemiplegic shoulder pain syndrome: interrater reliability of physical diagnosis signs

OBJECTIVE: To determine the interrater reliability of shoulder physical diagnosis signs in the acute stroke rehabilitation setting. DESIGN: Prospective inception cohort. SETTING: Academic inpatient stroke rehabilitation service. PARTICIPANTS: People admitted to stroke rehabilitation service. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The Neer impingement test, Speed test, acromioclavicular shear test, Rowe shoulder score, and palpation. RESULTS: Two examiners evaluated 46 consecutively admitted participants at 18.9+/-14.1 days after stroke. Percentage agreement was 78% or higher on all tests. The kappa statistic was in the fair to excellent interrater reliability range on all tests except those involving the acromioclavicular joint, for which findings were infrequent. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the shoulder physical diagnosis signs used in this study have sufficient interrater reliability for use in future clinical studies of hemiplegic shoulder pain.     

Manual physical assessment of spinal segmental motion: intent and validity

Validity of a clinical test can be defined as the extent to which the test actually assesses what it is intended to assess. In order to investigate the validity of manual physical assessment of the spine, it is therefore essential to establish what physical therapists intend to assess when they are applying these tests. The aims of this study were to (1) establish what manual physical therapists are intending to assess while applying passive intervertebral motion tests; and (2) examine the face validity and content validity for manual physical assessment of the spine. We surveyed 1502 members of the national manual physical therapist organisations of New Zealand and the United States of America using a web-based survey instrument. Sixty-six percent of 466 respondents believed passive accessory intervertebral motion (PAIVM) tests were valid for assessing quantity of segmental motion, and 76% believed passive physiologic intervertebral motion (PPIVM) tests were valid for assessing quantity of segmental motion. Ninety-eight percent of manual physical therapists base treatment decisions at least in part on the results of segmental motion tests. Quality of resistance to passive segmental motion was considered of greater importance than quantity of kinematic motion during PAIVM tests, while the quality of complex kinematic motion was considered of greater importance than quantity of displacement kinematics during PPIVM tests. Manual physical therapists accept the face validity of manual physical assessment of spinal segmental motion to a great extent, however a minority voice scepticism. Content validity is dominated by concepts of segmental kinematics and the force-displacement relationship. Intent of assessment does, however, vary widely between therapists. These data will inform the design of concurrent validity studies. Further work is recommended to increase consistency of intent, methodology and terminology in manual physical assessment of the spine.     

Developing and testing the Nutritional Form For the Elderly

Undernutrition among elderly patients is a significant problem in nursing care. The aims of this study were to develop and test an instrument for identifying actual and potential undernutrition among elderly patients in clinical nursing care. A Likert-type scale consisting of 15 items was constructed. A consecutive sample of 56 elderly patients (>65 years) in a geriatric rehabilitation ward in western Sweden were interviewed with the instrument. The data were mainly analysed with non-parametric statistical methods. The results showed that the instrument was a fairly reliable scale with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.72. Evidence of validity concerning face validity, criterion-related validity-including concurrent and predictive validity-and construct validity was shown in the study group. Further testing is required if the instrument is to be used in clinical nursing care and research.     

Diagnosing painful sacroiliac joints: A validity study of a McKenzie evaluation and sacroiliac provocation tests

Research suggests that clinical examination of the lumbar spine and pelvis is unable to predict the results of diagnostic injections used as reference standards. The purpose of this study was to assess the diagnostic accuracy of a clinical examination in identifying symptomatic and asymptomatic sacroiliac joints using double diagnostic injections as the reference standard. In a blinded concurrent criterion-related validity design study, 48 patients with chronic lumbopelvic pain referred for diagnostic spinal injection procedures were examined using a specific clinical examination and received diagnostic intraarticular sacroiliac joint injections. The centralisation and peripheralisation phenomena were used to identify possible discogenic pain and the results from provocation sacroiliac joint tests were used as part of the clinical reasoning process. Eleven patients had sacroiliac joint pain confirmed by double diagnostic injection. Ten of the 11 sacroiliac joint patients met clinical examination criteria for having sacroiliac joint pain. In the primary subset analysis of 34 patients, sensitivity, specificity and positive likelihood ratio (95% confidence intervals) of the clinical evaluation were 91% (62 to 98), 83% (68 to 96) and 6.97(2.70 to 20.27) respectively. The diagnostic accuracy of the clinical examination and clinical reasoning process was superior to the sacroiliac joint pain provocation tests alone. A specific clinical examination and reasoning process can differentiate between symptomatic and asymptomatic sacroiliac joints     

Diagnostic Utility of Clinical Tests for SLAP Lesions: A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

SLAP lesions are often complex injuries with varied defects and tissue involvement that are challenging to diagnose clinically. The literature notes the need for visualization under arthroscopy for adequate diagnostic accuracy. The goal of this article is to provide a current best-evidence synthesis with regard to physical examination tests used for the diagnosis of SLAP lesions. A literature search yielded 17 studies that investigated the diagnostic utility of clinical tests for SLAP lesions. These studies investigated 19 clinical tests. A narrative review and a systematic review of methodological quality using the QUADAS methodological quality assessment tool yielded 3 high-quality diagnostic utility studies. Current best evidence indicates that a negative finding for the passive compression test provides the therapist with the greatest evidence-based confidence that a SLAP lesion is absent. A positive finding on the anterior apprehension maneuver, the anterior slide test, the Jobe relocation test, the passive compression test, the Speed test, and the Yergason test or a combination of positive findings on the Jobe relocation test and the active compression test or the Jobe relocation test and the anterior apprehension maneuver provides the therapist with the research-based confidence required to rule in a SLAP lesion. For ruling in a SLAP lesion, the greatest diagnostic value should likely be placed on a positive finding on the passive compression test. Suggestions for future research are provided.     

AC-Gelenk-Arthrose

The acromioclavicular (AC) joint represents an important link of force transmission between the upper extremities and the thorax. Due to its anatomical and mechanical properties it is prone to early degenerative changes which can be detected initially on magnetic resonance imaging and on conventional radiographs at later stages. For an appropriate therapeutic concept it is essential to differentiate between symptomatic and asymptomatic types of AC joint arthritis using a sophisticated physical examination. As a differential diagnosis, concomitant subacromial or glenohumeral pathologies need to be ruled out and local infiltration tests are useful in this setting. Beyond conservative approaches in the treatment of AC joint arthritis the aim of operative treatment is to avoid painful bony contact by decompressing the joint with resection of the joint surfaces while preserving its ligamentous stability. Arthroscopic resection of the lateral end of the clavicle has become a standard procedure in the treatment of AC joint arthritis. The present article summarizes diagnostic strategies, surgical techniques and their respective results and complications.     

Translation, cross-cultural adaptation, reliability, and validity of the German version of the Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CSQ-D).

The aim of this study was to translate and cross-culturally adapt the American version of the Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CSQ) and to test the reliability and validity of the German version (CSQ-D). The CSQ was translated and cross-culturally adapted following international guidelines. Reliability and validity were tested in 62 individuals with chronic musculoskeletal pain syndromes. For the concurrent criterion-related validity the CSQ-D scales were compared with the German Pain Coping Questionnaire (FESV-BW), and for the construct validity with the German Short Form 36 (SF-36). The translation process proceeded without major difficulties. In testing for reliability, the CSQ-D as a whole had a Cronbach's alpha of .94 and an intraclass correlation coefficient of .89 (95% CI .86-.98). The total CSQ-D score was correlated to the FESV-BW scales with scores of r = 0.32-0.55 and with the SF-36 Mental Component Summary with scores of r = 0.32-0.53. The CSQ-D is a precisely translated and highly reliable instrument in the assessment of chronic pain coping strategies. Its concurrent criterion-related validity and construct validity are low. The main reason for the low level of agreement between the CSQ-D and the FESV-BW was revealed by factor analysis. PERSPECTIVE: This paper presents the German version of the Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CSQ-D) together with the results of clinimetric testing. The CSQ-D is a feasible and reliable outcome measure to be used in trials with German-speaking patients or large multicenter multinational trials to assess pain coping strategies in patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain.     

Reliability and validity of the Toglia Category Assessment Test.

The aim of this study was to establish interrater reliability, internal consistency reliability, and both concurrent and discriminant validity for the Toglia Category Assessment (TCA), a test of cognitive categorization. This study was based on an examination of categorization skills in clinical samples, using both the Toglia Category Assessment as well as the Riska Object Classification (ROC) test. The study sample consisted of 35 adult persons with brain-injury and 35 persons with chronic schizophrenia (n = 70). Correlations between scores of the two different tests and the two different samples were computed using Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coefficients. Both inter-rater reliability, internal consistency, and concurrent validity were established for the TCA. These results suggest that the Toglia Category Assessment and Riska Object Classification tests may address different cognitive abilities. The Toglia Category Assessment appears to be a more sensitive test than the Riska Object Classification in that it provides an elaborate cognitive profile.     

The structure, reliability and validity of pain expression: evidence from patients with shoulder pain

The present study examined psychometric properties of facial expressions of pain. A diverse sample of 129 people suffering from shoulder pain underwent a battery of active and passive range-of-motion tests to their affected and unaffected limbs. The same tests were repeated on a second occasion. Participants rated the maximum pain induced by each test on three self-report scales. Facial actions were measured with the Facial Action Coding System. Several facial actions discriminated painful from non-painful movements; however, brow-lowering, orbit tightening, levator contraction and eye closing appeared to constitute a distinct, unitary action. An index of pain expression based on these actions demonstrated test-retest reliability and concurrent validity with self-reports of pain. The findings support the concept of a core pain expression with desirable psychometric properties. They are also consistent with the suggestion of individual differences in pain expressiveness. Reasons for varying reports of relations between pain expression and self-reports in previous studies are discussed.     

Clinical acceptance of a multi-test reference region for biochemical-panel results

Results of a panel of six biochemical tests on a patient's specimen were mathematically combined into a "six-test signal strength" (STSS) value. This value indicated the overall extent of change from physiological results, and it was calculated in a way that ensured that a STSS value less than or equal to 1 occurred in 95% of apparently healthy people. STSS was reported with the test results for hospital inpatients during a four-month trial period. Doctors requested a repeat of the panel less often when a low STSS was reported, even if some test results were outside their separate reference intervals. Clinicians expressed differing opinions about its usefulness, some finding that a high STSS value had saved them from overlooking abnormal results, others not finding the value to be any practical advantage. Using a multi-test normal region resolves a statistical dilemma, while compounding the problem of knowing what results really mean.