Lumbar Spinal Stenosis: A Literature Review

Abstract

This paper describes the etiology and clinical manifestations of lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS); discusses diagnosis, prognosis, and intervention; and addresses outcome studies and their implications in managing patients with lumbar spinal stenosis. LSS is a condition involving narrowing of the central spinal canal, lateral recesses, or intervertebral foramina; it is the most commonly diagnosed degenerative process associated with aging. Neurogenic intermittent claudication is a common clinical manifestation of LSS that must be differentiated from vascular claudication of the lower extremities. Although surgery is commonly performed in treating LSS, some evidence exists to support the use of a conservative approach such as orthopaedic manual physical therapy. However, controlled clinical trials with large sample sizes are lacking to offer strong support for either conservative or surgical measures. This paper provides a rationale for a manual physical therapy and exercise approach in treating LSS. Future studies need to include comparative research involving different conservative approaches, and indications for surgical versus nonsurgical management of LSS need to be more clearly defined and studied through randomized, controlled clinical trials.     

Influence of Transfer Quality and Wheelchair Type on Fear of Falling Among Full-Time Wheelchair Users

ObjectiveTo evaluate the influence of transfer quality and demographics on fear of falling (FOF) among full-time wheelchair users.DesignSecondary data analysis.SettingUniversity research laboratory and community, United States.ParticipantsNinety-six individuals (N=96) living with multiple sclerosis or spinal cord injury who use a manual or power scooter full time with median age of 54.00 years (interquartile range, 29.00 years), and median duration of health condition of 19.50 years (interquartile range, 23.00 years) were included. Fifty-two participants (54%) were manual wheelchair users.InterventionsNot applicable.Main Outcome MeasuresDemographics information included age, sex, duration of health condition, height, weight, body mass index, and wheelchair type. To assess transfer quality, the Transfer Assessment Instrument versions 3.0 and 4.0 were used. The Spinal Cord Injury Falls Concern Scale was used to quantify FOF. Stepwise linear regression analysis was conducted to examine factors influencing FOF.ResultsParticipant's age, sex, duration of health condition, wheelchair type, and transfer quality were associated with FOF. The regression analysis indicated transfer quality (β=−0.25, P<.01) and wheelchair type (manual wheelchair, β=− 0.32, P<.01) were significant predictors of FOF, R²=20% (F=11.19; P<.01).ConclusionsCompared with manual wheelchair users, power wheelchair/scooter users with poor transfer quality reported higher levels of FOF. Clinicians and researchers working with wheelchair users should emphasize quality of transfers and consider the type of wheelchair while developing interventions to reduce FOF in this population. Further longitudinal prospective studies on modifiable factors associated with FOF among full-time wheelchair users are warranted.     

关节镜技术治疗退变性腰椎椎管狭窄症的临床效果

目的 探讨利用关节镜进行单侧双通道脊柱内镜技术（UBE）治疗退变性腰椎椎管狭窄症的临床效果。方法 回顾性分析2021年1月－2021年5月该院利用关节镜行UBE技术治疗退变性腰椎椎管狭窄症并获得完全随访的患者16例。比较术前、术后1周及终末随访时视觉模拟评分（VAS）及腰椎Oswestry功能障碍指数（ODI）。用改良MacNab标准进行疗效评价,观察其疗效及并发症。结果 术后腰腿痛VAS和ODI均明显改善（P < 0.05）;改良MacNab标准评定：优7例,良8例,可1例,差0例,优良率93.8%,并发症有：硬膜囊损伤2例（包括硬膜囊撕裂1例）和术后短期复发1例。结论 利用关节镜进行UBE治疗退变性腰椎椎管狭窄症,可以取得良好的临床效果,特别适用于高龄患者。     

Three-Dimensional Spinal Position With and Without Manual Distraction Load Increases Spinal Height

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate if spinal height increases using 3-dimensional (3-D) spinal position with and without manual distraction load and to assess the correlation between spine height changes and degrees of trunk rotation.MethodsFifty-six participants were randomly placed in one of two groups: (1) 3-D spinal position with manual distraction load, and (2) without manual distraction load. Spinal height was measured before and after the interventions using a stadiometer. For the statistical analysis, we used a 2 (Loading status: pre- versus post-intervention height) X 2 (3-D spinal position: with versus without manual distraction load) repeated measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to identify significant interaction and main effects. Paired t-tests were used to calculate differences in spinal height changes between the two interventions. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to measure correlations between changes in spinal heights and degrees of trunk rotation.ResultsMean spinal height increase with 3-D spinal position with and without manual distraction load was 6.30 mm (±6.22) and 5.69 mm (±4.13), respectively. No significant interaction effect was present between loading status and 3-D spinal position but a significant main effect in loading status was. Paired t-tests revealed significant differences in spinal heights between pre-and post-3-D spinal position with and without manual distraction load. No significant correlation was measured between trunk rotation and spinal height changes.Conclusion3-D spinal position with or without distraction load increased spinal height. This suggests that 3-D spinal positioning without manual distraction could be used in home settings to help maintain intervertebral disc (IVD) health.     

Effectiveness of manual therapy in the treatment of non-specific neck pain: a review

Abstract

The aim of the current review was to assess the evidence for the effectiveness of cervical spine manipulation and mobilisation in the treatment of non-specific neck pain. A review of the literature was performed in a systematic format, based upon a structured search of six computerised bibliographic databases, together with manual searching of selected journals and reference lists to identify randomised clinical trials (RCTs) researching the effectiveness of manual therapy in the treatment of non-specific neck pain. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed using a set of pre-defined criteria adapted from Koes et al. (Koes BW, Assendelft WJJ, van der Heijden GJMG, Bouter LM, Knipschild PG. Spinal manipulation and mobilisation for back and neck pain: a blinded review. BMJ 1991; 303 :1298–303) and updated in the light of recent literature.

A total of 12 RCTs met the selection criteria. The scores achieved for methodological quality of the studies ranged from 25 points to 67 points out of a possible 100 points. Only four RCTs scored above 50 points: two of these reached a positive conclusion about the effectiveness of spinal manual therapy in the treatment of non-specific neck pain, and two a negative conclusion. Eight RCTs scored below 50 points; six of these reached a positive conclusion and two a negative conclusion.

RCTs researching the effectiveness of manual therapy for non-specific neck pain demonstrate methodological shortcomings in both design and reporting. The effectiveness of spinal manual therapy on non-specific neck pain remains inconclusive. The available evidence favoured spinal manual therapy when it was used in conjunction with exercise, particularly in the treatment of patients with chronic non-specific neck pain. Further, well-designed RCTs are needed to draw valid conclusions about the effectiveness of spinal manual therapy on nonspecific neck pain. In such future RCTs, placebo treatments should be designed to be indistinguishable (as far as possible) from manual therapy, and without the specific effects of active therapy. Furthermore, psychosocial factors should be considered prior to randomisation of patients by using appropriate measures.     

A Comparative Analysis of Static Balance Between Patients With Lumbar Spinal Canal Stenosis and Asymptomatic Participants

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to assess static balance in patients with lumbar spinal canal stenosis who qualified for surgical decompression of associated neural structures and compare them with asymptomatic participants.MethodsThis case-controlled study evaluated a sample of 50 patients with spinal canal stenosis (stenosis group) and 48 participants with no history of clinical symptoms of back pain. Static balance was assessed by conducting quantitative analysis of balance reaction parameters in quiet standing with the eyes closed.ResultsHigher values were observed in total length of center of pressure (COP) path, length of COP path in the anterior-posterior plane, mean amplitude of COP projection in the anterior-posterior plane, maximal amplitude between the 2 most distant points in the anterior-posterior plane, mean COP velocity, and sway area marked by the moving COP in the stenosis group compared with the asymptomatic group.ConclusionsThis study showed statistically significant differences in static balance parameters between patients with spinal canal stenosis compared with the asymptomatic group.     

Manual therapy directed at the knee or lumbopelvic region does not influence quadriceps spinal reflex excitability

Manual therapies, directed to the knee and lumbopelvic region, have demonstrated the ability to improve neuromuscular quadriceps function in individuals with knee pathology. It remains unknown if manual therapies may alter impaired spinal reflex excitability, thus identifying a potential mechanism in which manual therapy may improve neuromuscular function following knee injury.AimTo determine the effect of local and distant mobilisation/manipulation interventions on quadriceps spinal reflex excitability.MethodsSeventy-five individuals with a history of knee joint injury and current quadriceps inhibition volunteered for this study. Participants were randomised to one of five intervention groups: lumbopelvic manipulation (grade V), lumbopelvic manipulation positioning (no thrust), grade IV patellar mobilisation, grade I patellar mobilisation, and control (no treatment). Changes in spinal reflex excitability were quantified by assessing the Hoffmann reflex (H-reflex), presynaptic, and postsynaptic excitability. A hierarchical linear-mixed model for repeated measures was performed to compare changes in outcome variables between groups over time (pre, post 0, 30, 60, 90 min).ResultsThere were no significant differences in H-reflex, presynaptic, or postsynaptic excitability between groups across time.ConclusionsManual therapies directed to the knee or lumbopelvic region did not acutely change quadriceps spinal reflex excitability. Although manual therapies may improve impairments and functional outcomes the underlying mechanism does not appear to be related to changes in spinal reflex excitability.     

Force transmission between thoracic and cervical segments of the spine during prone-lying high-velocity low-amplitude spinal manipulation: A proof of principle for the concept of regional interdependence

BackgroundRegional interdependence is conceptually based on observations that applying manual therapy to a remote anatomical region has an effect in the area of the patient's primary complaint. The current model for regional interdependence depends on force transmissibility within the body. This investigation sought to determine transmissibility between forces applied to the thoracic spine during prone-lying high-velocity low-amplitude spinal manipulative therapy and the cervical spine.MethodsA chiropractic treatment table was modified to allow (or disallow) translation of the headrest in the caudal-cephalad direction when unlocked (or locked). Prone-lying high-velocity low-amplitude spinal manipulative therapy was applied to the thoracic region of 9 healthy participants with the headrest in both configurations. Head and thorax kinematics and kinetics were measured at interfaces between participant and the external environment, which included the clinician's hands. Compressive forces at the cervicothoracic junction and angular kinematics of the cervical spine were derived. Ratios between the clinician-applied forces (input) and the cervical compressive force (output) were also determined.FindingsThe cervical spine extended during all high-velocity low-amplitude spinal manipulative therapy trials. Force input-to-output ratios exceeded 1 for high-velocity low-amplitude spinal manipulative therapy trials performed with the headrest in the locked configuration, which was greater than ratios for the unlocked configuration.InterpretationForces imparted to thoracic spine during high-velocity low-amplitude spinal manipulative therapy were transmitted to the cervical spine, which provided a precursor for the regional interdependence model for manual therapy. Friction between the participant's face and the treatment table's head rest likely amplified cervical compressive forces.     

Severe lumbar spinal stenosis combined with Guillain-Barré syndrome: A case report

BACKGROUNDGuillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a rare disorder that typically presents with ascending weakness, pain, paraesthesias, and numbness, which mimic the findings in lumbar spinal stenosis. Here, we report a case of severe lumbar spinal stenosis combined with GBS.CASE SUMMARYA 70-year-old man with a history of lumbar spinal stenosis presented to our emergency department with severe lower back pain and lower extremity numbness. Magnetic resonance imaging confirmed the diagnosis of severe lumbar spinal stenosis. However, his symptoms did not improve postoperatively and he developed dysphagia and upper extremity numbness. An electromyogram was performed. Based on his symptoms, physical examination, and electromyogram, he was diagnosed with GBS. After 5 d of intravenous immunoglobulin (0.4 g/kg/d for 5 d) therapy, he gained 4/5 of strength in his upper and lower extremities and denied paraesthesias. He had regained 5/5 of strength in his extremities when he was discharged and had no symptoms during follow-up.CONCLUSIONGBS should be considered in the differential diagnosis of spinal disorder, even though magnetic resonance imaging shows severe lumbar spinal stenosis. This case highlights the importance of a careful diagnosis when a patient has a history of a disease and comes to the hospital with the same or similar symptoms.     

Spinal dural arteriovenous fistula 8 years after lumbar discectomy surgery: A case report and review of literature

BACKGROUNDSpinal dural arteriovenous fistula (SDAVF) is an extremely rare vascular malformation of the central nervous system that is often confused with degenerative spinal disorders due to similar early symptoms and clinical features. Here, we report a case of SDAVF recurrence 8 years after lumbar spine surgery and summarize relevant literature.CASE SUMMARYA 54-year-old male was admitted to our hospital complaining of lower back pain, numbness in both lower extremities and intermittent claudication. Subsequent imaging identified lumbar spinal stenosis. Following surgical treatment, the patient’s symptoms significantly resolved, and he was able to perform daily activities. However, similar symptoms appeared 8 years later, followed by confirmation of SDAVF diagnosis. The patient underwent neurosurgery 7 mo after symptom onset. The follow-up period lasted 14 mo, and the patient remains with marginal neurological symptoms.CONCLUSIONThis case highlights the importance of prompt SDAVF diagnosis. Due to its nonspecific clinical presentation, the clinical experience of the surgeon and definitive imaging examination are indispensable. Additionally, timely neurosurgery is effective and may significantly improve patient outcomes.     

Evaluate the characteristics and clinical significance of “toxic twin-leaf” sign in spinal epidural metastases before percutaneous vertebroplasty

ObjectiveOur study aimed to analyze morphological features of spinal epidural metastases using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and investigate the formation mechanism and clinical significance of the “toxic twin-leaf” sign in spinal epidural metastasis.Materials and methodsWe retrospectively studied 108 patients with spinal epidural metastases who underwent MRI. Patients were divided into “toxic twin-leaf” sign group (group A) and irregular group (group B). Chi-square test was used to analyze data on sex, vertebra location, presence of fracture in the corresponding vertebral body, involvement of the corresponding pedicle, and the primary tumor. Further, group data were analyzed using the rank sum test; p ​< ​0.05 was considered significant.ResultsThe “twin-leaf” sign was noted in 88 cases with 136 epidural masses and 20 cases of irregular shape in 108 patients; the “toxic twin-leaf” sign accounted for 87.18% of spinal epidural metastases. A difference between groups in the vertebra location (p ​< ​0.01) was observed, but no differences were found in sex, presence of fractures in the corresponding vertebral body, involvement of the corresponding pedicle, and primary tumor (p ​> ​0.05). Intergroup differences in the rate of spinal stenosis on axial and sagittal images were significant.ConclusionsMRI axial sequences clearly revealed the morphology of spinal epidural metastases. Detection of the “toxic twin-leaf” sign in spinal epidural metastases was of great clinical significance. Furthermore, determining the degree of spinal stenosis in the axial sequence provided a more accurate evaluation of patients’ condition compared to the sagittal sequence.     

Evolution of spinal cord injuries due to cervical canal stenosis without radiographic evidence of trauma (SCIWORET): a prospective study

BackgroundTraumatic spinal cord injuries on cervical canal stenosis represent a steadily increasing pathology, of which clinical and functional outcomes remain largely unknown.Material and methodsWe present the results of a prospective study of 20 patients followed for one year who had presented with traumatic spinal cord injury involving initially acute neurological symptoms and cervical canal stenosis defined in the imaging by a Torg ratio < 0.8 and a medullary canal ratio > 0.65, without vertebral fracture.ResultsTraumatic spinal cord injuries on cervical canal stenosis are caused mainly by falls in the elderly population and by unsafe behaviour among younger subjects. Most of the patients present with initially incomplete tetraplegia, and two thirds have centromedullary syndrome. Association of complete tetraplegia with advanced age would seem to be a predictive factor of death in the early post-traumatic period. For incomplete tetraplegics, the main phase of neurological and functional recovery is observed over the first six months. Radiological data and timing of surgery do not appear to affect the prognosis.ConclusionThis study underlines the need for individualized specialized care of patients with spinal cord injuries on cervical canal stenosis, particularly according to their demographic and lesional characteristics.     

Changes in Spinal Height After Manual Axial Traction or Side Lying: A Clinical Measure of Intervertebral Disc Hydration Using Stadiometry

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to determine the immediate effects of a manual therapy technique consisting of axial traction compared with side lying on increased spine height after sustained loading.MethodsTwenty-one asymptomatic participants were included. Participants either received manual therapy technique consisting of manual axial traction force for 2 consecutive rounds of 3 minutes or sustained side lying for 10 minutes. Spine height was measured using a commercially available stadiometer. Spinal height change was determined from measurements taken after loaded walking and measurements taken after manual therapy. A paired t test was performed to determine if a manual therapy technique consisting of axial traction increased spinal height after a period of spinal loading.ResultsA significant increase in height was found after both manual therapy technique and sustained side lying (P < .0001). The mean height gain was 8.60 mm using 3-dimensional axial separation.ConclusionThis study is an initial attempt at evaluating the biomechanical effects of manual therapy technique consisting of axial traction. Both manual axial traction force and sustained side-lying position were equally effective for short-term change in spine height after a loaded walking protocol among healthy asymptomatic individuals. This study protocol may help to inform future studies that evaluate spine height after loading.     

微创经椎间孔腰椎间融合术治疗腰椎椎管狭窄症的效果评价

目的 探讨微创经椎间孔腰椎间融合术(Mis-TLIF)治疗腰椎椎管狭窄症的临床效果.方法 回顾性分析2014年1月-2019年1月83例在该院住院的腰椎椎管狭窄症患者的临床资料,按手术方法不同分为Mis-TLIF组(n=40)和腰椎后路椎间融合(PLIF)组(n=43).Mis-TLIF组腰椎椎管狭窄原因:腰椎滑脱15...     

Variables Associated with Abandoning the Manual Therapy Approach Learned in Physical Therapy School

Abstract

Numerous manual therapy backgrounds are taught during formal education and continuing education courses within the United States. Many of these approaches employ disparate philosophies for examination and treatment. The purpose of this study was to determine what variables are associated with abandoning the manual therapy approach learned in school. This study surveyed 439 Board-Certified Orthopaedic Specialists (OCS), members of the American Physical Therapy Association. Data were collected through an Internet survey and analyzed using SPSS version 12.0. Logistic regression analysis determined that increased years of experience was associated with the likelihood of abandoning one's spinal manual therapy approach learned in school. There were no variables associated with the likelihood of abandonment of a peripheral approach. Moreover, clinicians were less likely to report abandonment of an approach if their PT school emphasized the Maitland, eclectic, Osteopathic, McKenzie, Cyriax, Kaltenborn, or Paris approach to the spine. The variables that made a clinician less likely to abandon his or her peripheral manual therapy approach were that a clinician' feels that the approach is effective' with the additions of the backgrounds of Maitland, Kaltenborn, Cyriax, eclectic, Paris, or Osteopathic approach or "none." All variables with the exception of years of experience were associated with the likelihood of retaining versus abandoning one's manual therapy approach learned during formal education.     

Effects of lumbar spinal disorders on the vertical ground reaction force and Spatio-temporal parameters in gait

BackgroundGround reaction forces are biomechanical data, providing information to investigate pathological gait. The vertical component of ground reaction force introduces the upward thrust force within gait progression. Although alterations in the vertical component in patients with spinal disorders were addressed in the literature, still the corresponding effect on spinal disorders is a major issue to scrutiny. In this study, the effects of two different anatomical spinal disorders on the vertical component pattern were investigated.MethodsTwo groups of patients with lumbar spine stenosis and lumbar intervertebral disc degeneration with lesions at L4-L5 and/or L5-S1 levels, were recruited. The vertical component of ground reaction force and spatio-temporal parameters were obtained and analyzed using one-way analysis of variance.FindingsThe results indicated that all spatio-temporal parameters differed significantly (P < 0.05) except step lengths and stride times (P > 0.05). In a similar test, the Fz2 in patients with lumbar stenosis was higher than that of those with disc degeneration (P < 0.05). Besides, the vertical ground reaction force pattern showed lower slopes in stenosis patients.InterpretationThis study showed that the vertical component of ground reaction force alterations and spatio-temporal parameters could be employed as indicators for certain spinal lesions. The results of this study could implement as an adjunct diagnostic method to help clinicians to differentiate between stenosis and disc degeneration patients and plan for their rehabilitation purposes.     

Lower bowel disorders

PREVIEW

All physicians, but particularly those who treat middle-aged and elderly patients in primary care or other general care settings, encounter the many facets of lumbar spinal stenosis. Therefore, an awareness of the signs and symptoms and of the treatment options, especially the conservative measures that benefit many patients, is important. In this article, Drs Nagler and Hausen review this type of stenosis and describe approaches to management.     

可视化椎间孔成形技术治疗腰椎侧隐窝狭窄症

目的 分析可视化椎间孔成形技术治疗腰椎侧隐窝狭窄症的临床效果及手术技巧.方法 回顾性分析2018年1月-2019年1月52例行经皮内镜椎间孔入路椎间孔扩大成形腰椎侧隐窝减压术治疗的腰椎侧隐窝狭窄症患者的临床资料.其中,男30例,女22例,年龄63～77岁,平均(69.10±10.70)岁.记录手术时间及手术并发症,使用...     

Effectiveness of manual physical therapy in the treatment of cervical radiculopathy: a systematic review

Abstract

Study design: Systematic review of randomized clinical trials.

Objective: Review of current literature regarding the effectiveness of manual therapy in the treatment of cervical radiculopathy.

Background: Cervical radiculopathy (CR) is a clinical condition frequently encountered in the physical therapy clinic. Cervical radiculopathy is a result of space occupying lesions in the cervical spine: either cervical disc herniations, spondylosis, or osteophytosis. These affect the pain generators of bony and ligamentous tissues, producing radicular symptoms (i.e. pain, numbness, weakness, paresthesia) observed in the upper extremity of patients with cervical nerve root pathology. Cervical radiculopathy has a reported annual incidence of 83·2 per 100?000 and an increased prevalence in the fifth decade of life among the general population.

Results: Medline and CINAHL via EBSCO, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar were used to retrieve the randomized clinical trial studies for this review between the years of 1995 and February of 2011. Four studies met inclusion criteria and were considered to be high quality (PEDro scores of ?5). Manual therapy techniques included muscle energy techniques, non-thrust/thrust manipulation/mobilization of the cervical and/or thoracic spine, soft-tissue mobilization, and neural mobilization. In each study, manual therapy was either a stand-alone intervention or part of a multimodal approach which included therapeutic exercise and often some form of cervical traction. Although no clear cause and effect relationship can be established between improvement in radicular symptoms and manual therapy, results are generally promising.

Conclusion: Although a definitive treatment progression for treating CR has not been developed a general consensus exists within the literature that using manual therapy techniques in conjunction with therapeutic exercise is effective in regard to increasing function, as well as AROM, while decreasing levels of pain and disability. High quality RCTs featuring control groups are necessary to establish clear and effective protocols in the treatment of CR.     

Intracardiac,pulmonary cement embolism in a 67-year-old female after cement-augmented pedicle screw instrumentation: A case report and review of literature

BACKGROUNDWe report a case of Intracardiac, pulmonary, and intravenous cement embolism after cement-augmented pedicle screw instrumentation in treating spondylolisthesis underlying osteoporotic bone, which was successfully managed by conservative treatment. We describe the treatment and outcome of the patient, hoping to shed light on the management of bone cement embolism.CASE SUMMARYA 67-year-old female suffered from progressive low back pain and numbness in lower extremities for 30 years. She was diagnosed with L4 and L5 spondylolisthesis, spinal stenosis, and osteoporosis. The patient underwent spinal canal decompression, an interbody fusion of L4/5 and L5/S1, cement-augmented pedicle screw instrumentation in L4-L5 segments, and regular pedicle screw in S1 segments. Three days postoperatively, a sudden drop in oxygen saturation occurred. Computerized tomography scan confirmed Intracardiac, pulmonary, and intravenous embolism. The patient was treated conservatively by continuous low-flow oxygen inhalation, anti-coagulation, and antibiotic therapy for 1 mo and continued anticoagulation treatment for 6 mo. The patient showed no further symptoms in a 30-mo follow-up.CONCLUSIONIntracardiac, pulmonary cement embolism after cement-augmented pedicle screw instrumentation is extremely rare. Careful clinical and radiographic evaluation is required in multiple sites of bone cement embolism. Conservative treatment may be a primary consideration in scattered emboli without life-threatening conditions, but a clinical decision should be made on an individualized basis.