Healthcare issues of detainees in police custody in London,UK

Little is known about the general healthcare needs of detainees in police custody. The aims of this study were to: determine the level of general health issues, diseases and/or pathology for detainees in police custody, and to determine how well those general health issues, diseases and/or pathology are being managed. This was done by a detailed analysis of healthcare issues of a cohort of detainees and reviewing intended and prescribed medication needs with current medication availability. In August 2007, a prospective detailed, anonymised, structured questionnaire survey was undertaken of 201 detainees in police custody in London, UK. Of these 83.6% consented to participate in the study. 85.1% of subjects were male; mean age was 33.9 years; 70.8% had English as a first language; 13.7% were of no fixed abode; 70.2% were registered with a general practitioner (primary care physician); 25% were already in contact with other healthcare teams; 7.1% had previously been sectioned under the Mental Health Act 1983; 16.7% had previously intentionally self-injured; 33.9% were dependent on heroin, 33.9% on crack cocaine; 25% on alcohol, 16.6% on benzodiazepines and 63.1% on cigarettes. 56% of subjects had active medical conditions; of those with active medical conditions 74% were prescribed medication for those medical conditions; only 3/70 had their medication available. 28/70 were not taking medication regularly, and many were not taking it at all. Three subjects who had deep vein thromboses were not taking their prescribed anticoagulants and six subjects with severe mental health issues were not taking their anti-psychotic medication. Mental health issues and depression predominated, but there was a very large range of mixed diseases and pathology. Asthma, epilepsy, diabetes, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, hepatitis, and hypertension were all represented. The study has achieved its aims and has also shown that – in part because of the chaotic lifestyle of many detainees – appropriate care was not being rendered, thereby, putting both detainee, and potentially others coming into contact with them, at risk.     

An investigation of the interface between the office of the police ombudsman for Northern Ireland and local forensic physicians

The interface between forensic physicians and the police ombudsman of Northern Ireland is an area where there is little published research. In particular there has been no attempt to inquire into the role of forensic physicians in the procedures employed to investigate alleged police maltreatment of prisoners at the time of arrest or later in the custodial setting. A questionnaire was distributed to all forensic physicians in Northern Ireland to assess their level of engagement with the ombudsman's office and shed light on the attitudes of forensic physicians to the police ombudsman's handling of the complaints procedure. The results published represent the opinion of the majority of forensic physicians in Northern Ireland and show a broadly supportive attitude to the role of the police ombudsman in the investigation of alleged police officer misconduct. However, a majority of forensic physicians felt that their involvement in the investigative process was an under-used resource.     

Health needs of detainees in police custody in England and Wales. Literature review

The aim of this systematic is to review and analyse the literature concerned with the health needs of detainees in police custody in England and Wales.The healthcare of detainees in police custody is regulated by the England and Wales Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. The Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine of the Royal College of Physicians also sets quality standards for the provision of custodial healthcare. The provision of healthcare in custody presents a number of challenges including the patient group, the setting and the overlap between the legal and medical concerns that are addressed by the medical team. Currently, care to the detainees in custody is delivered by a mixture of private organisations, police-led forensic medical services and the NHS.A search of the PUBMED, EMBASE and PsycINFO databases undertaken using the search terms: (police custody) OR (detainees) OR (police detainees) yielded 830 publications. All of the titles were screened to identify potentially relevant publications concerned with the health needs of detainees in police custodies in England and Wales. There were no design specific criteria set for inclusion of the studies in this literature review. 77 articles were initially identified as relevant and obtained in full. After further analysis 28 publications were included in this literature review.A total sample of over 12,000 detainees was examined in this literature review. Approximately 20% of detainees seen by health care teams suffer from psychiatric conditions. On average, 50% of patients claim that they have problems with drugs and alcohol. Physical health conditions are also highly prevalent with up to 74% of detainees requiring regular medication. Forensic medical issues included the management of detainees who were restrained using handcuffs, irritant sprays and TASER. Detainees who are suspected of internal drug concealment also require intensive medical input. Injury documentation in custody is often requested for both the police officer and detainees.Current literature indicates that mental health problems including substance misuse and physical conditions are highly prevalent among the custody population and require both emergency and routine care. The current quality of the health-care services has been discussed and the need for improvement has been indicated by a number of agencies. Recent attempts have been made to incorporate the custodial services into the general structure of the NHS, aiming for more robust governance and standardization of services. Implementation of a routine health promotion service in custody has also been discussed which can be integrated into the general health care provision during detention.     

Guidelines for doctors attending detainees in police custody: a consensus conference in France

Medical practice in police custody needs to be harmonized. A consensus conference was held on 2–3 December 2004 in Paris, France. The health, integrity, and dignity of detainees must be safeguarded. The examination should take place in the police station so that the doctor can assess the conditions in which the detainee is being held. If the minimum conditions needed for a medical examination are not available, the doctor may refuse to express an opinion as to whether the detainee is fit to be held in custody or may ask for the detainee to be examined in a hospital. Doctors are subject to a duty of care and prevention. They should prescribe any ongoing treatment that needs to be continued, as well as any emergency treatment required. Custody officers may monitor the detainee and administer medication. However, their role should not be expected to exceed that required of the detainee’s family under normal circumstances and must be specified in writing on the medical certificate. Doctor’s opinion should be given in a national standard document. If the doctors consider that the custody conditions are disgraceful, they may refuse to express an opinion as to whether the detainee is fit for custody.     

Risk to police officers from biohazards encountered in police work

The risk of contracting infectious disease in the course of police work is reviewed. The specific focus is on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), hepatitis and tuberculosis. A review of the relevant literature and an assessment of the biohazard risk specific to police work is provided. The risk of AIDS and hepatitis C is seen to be less than the risk of hepatitis B. For these blood borne diseases, universal precautions are recommended. The application of such precautions to policing is outlined. Immunisation against hepatitis B is recommended. Tuberculosis is seen as a possibly increasing risk. A programme of surveillance is recommended. A review of post-exposure management is provided.     

Development of a clinical forensic medicine curriculum for emergency physicians in the USA

To address the forensic needs of living patients, the Department of Emergency Medicine at the University of Louisville School of Medicine in Louisville, Kentucky, USA initiated the first clinical forensic medicine training programme in the USA. In July 1991, formal training in clinical forensic medicine was incorporated into the core curriculum of the USA's second oldest academic emergency medicine training programme. The University of Louisville, in cooperation with the Kentucky Medical Examiner's Office, developed the curriculum to provide the emergency physician with the knowledge base and technical skills to perform forensic evaluations of living patients. Forensic lectures are given monthly by local and regional forensic experts including: forensic pathologists, prosecuting attorneys, firearm and ballistics examiners, law enforcement officers, forensic chemists and forensic odontologists. Topics which are presented include: forensic pathology, forensic photography, ballistics and firearms analysis, paediatric physical and sexual assault, crime scene investigation, forensic odontology, courtroom and expert testimony and the forensic evaluation of penetrating trauma. As a result of the introduction of clinical forensic medicine into the core curriculum of an emergency medicine training programme the residents are now actively addressing the forensic issues encountered in the Emergency department. Key, often short-lived forensic evidence, which was frequently overlooked or discarded while delivering patient care is now recognized, documented and preserved. The development and introduction of a clinical forensic medicine curriculum into emergency medicine training has greatly enhanced the emergency physician's ability to recognize, document and address the forensic needs of their patients who are victims of violent and non-fatal trauma.     

Concealment of drugs by police detainees: lessons learned from adverse incidents and from 'routine' clinical practice

This is a collaborative piece of work undertaken between the PCA and a Principal FME. The study is based on 16 cases of internal drug concealment drawn from 43 drug-related deaths in custody in England and Wales between 1997 and 2002. These data are supplemented by three case studies from a county force involving non-fatal drug concealment to illustrate practical custody issues. The majority of the 16 deaths were white (n = 12) and male (n = 13) with a mean age of 34 years. In half of the cases, the deceased was known or believed to have concealed drugs orally at the point of initial contact with police. In 4/16 cases, the individual first showed signs of medical distress in a public place, a further 4 collapsed on arrival at the police station and two more detainees were subsequently found collapsed in their cell. Drug toxicity was the most common cause of death (10/16). In 5 cases death was caused by airway obstruction by swallowed packages. Both cocaine (14/16) and cannabis (8/16) traces were found in post-mortem samples. The report emphasises the need for a safety first approach.     

Medical death certification by forensic physicians in the Netherlands: Validity and interdoctorvariation

The aim of the study was to assess interdoctorvariation and validity in death certification by forensic physicians using 19 written scenarios. The scenarios described typical cases from forensic-medical practice. Physicians were asked to determine the manner of death (natural/unnatural) and to provide an ICD-10 code for the cause of death. In contrast to most studies on this topic, the measure of agreement among physicians was chance-corrected and a standard was used to assess the correctness of the assigned cause and manner of death. Forty-seven physicians participated in the survey. The study demonstrated that forensic physicians varied widely in their conclusions. With respect to manner of death, adequate agreement (defined as kappa>0.70) was achieved in six scenarios (32% of all scenarios). Concerning the underlying cause of death, adequate agreement was reached in three cases (16% of all scenarios). Furthermore, predictors for the correctness of manner and cause of death were studied using logistic regression. Years of experience as a forensic physician significantly predicted the correctness of cause of death (p < 0.05). Other predictors remained insignificant. With regard to manner of death, none of the studied predictors proved to be significant. To conclude, there appears to be a lack of consistency among forensic physicians regarding death certification. The ICD-10 coding of causes of death applied by forensic physicians is questionable. Less experienced physicians need supervision by more experienced colleagues when making judgments concerning the cause of death. Altogether, there is an urgent need to work out consensus-based guidelines for forensic physicians on how to certify deaths.     

Quartz grain surface textures of soils and sediments from Canberra,Australia: A forensic reconstruction tool

This paper provides our first forensic quartz grain surface texture analysis of soils from the southern hemisphere. Sediment and soil samples were collected from a simulated crime reconstruction in the environs of Canberra, Australia, which comprised a murder site, an alibi site and a body deposition site. Following the successful application of quartz grain surface texture analysis from many case locations in England1 Bull, P A and Morgan, R M. 2006. Sediment fingerprints: A forensic technique using quartz sand grains. Sci Justice, 46(2): 64–81.  [Google Scholar] and more recently in Switzerland2 Freudiger-Bonzon, J, Bull, P A and Morgan, R M. 2007. A geoforensic comparison of physical and chemical analysis of soils from the plateau region of Switzerland. Second International Workshop on Criminal and Environmental Forensics 2007. 30 October – 1 November2007, Edinburgh, UK. pp.43 [Google Scholar], this paper examines the potential for the application of this technique from areas around Canberra. The very specific geological history of the Australian continent provides new challenges for forensic reconstruction techniques. The quartz grain surface textural analysis undertaken indicates that clear differences between the three locations can be identified, enabling the successful differentiation of samples taken from the three distinct sites. This provides a means of undertaking exclusionary analysis and disproving an alibi location as being a possible source for material derived from the murder site or the body deposition site. These findings indicate that this form of geoforensic analysis has great potential for crime scene investigation of mixed-source physical trace geoforensic evidence in Australia. It also has the potential to provide an independent line of enquiry to other well established geoforensic techniques.     

The work of forensic medical experts in detecting and preventing defects in medical care]

On the basis of practical experience (analysis of defects in 468 cases of trauma) the author formulates a pivotal concept of defect in medical care, reveals its nature and reasons, gives its functional classification. Many notions cited in the article have a general character and don't confine itself strictly to the subject of defects in cases of trauma. The author gives basis methods of the legal physician's activities in the prophylaxis of defects in medical care.