Expression profiles of 10 circadian clock genes in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

The circadian clock system regulates daily rhythms of physiology and behavior. The mammalian master clock in the suprachiasmatic nuclei orchestrates these biological rhythms in peripheral tissues. Since blood is the most accessible tissue source, we sought to dissect the human circadian clock system by characterizing clock gene expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from eight young, healthy subjects. By evaluating the temporal expression profiles of 10 circadian clock genes, we found that Period 1 (Per1), Per2, and Per3 are rhythmically expressed in human blood samples. Our results suggest that evaluating the rhythmic expression of human Per genes could reveal an individual's circadian phenotype.     

The circadian clock is functional in eosinophils and mast cells

Allergic diseases are frequently exacerbated between midnight and early morning, suggesting a role for the biological clock. Mast cells (MC) and eosinophils are the main effector cells of allergic diseases and some MC‐specific or eosinophil‐specific markers, such as tryptase or eosinophil cationic protein, exhibit circadian variation. Here, we analysed whether the circadian clock is functional in mouse and human eosinophils and MC. Mouse jejunal MC and polymorphonuclear cells from peripheral blood (PMNC) were isolated around the circadian cycle. Human eosinophils were purified from peripheral blood of non‐allergic and allergic subjects. Human MC were purified from intestinal tissue. We found a rhythmic expression of the clock genes mPer1, mPer2, mClock and mBmal1 and eosinophil‐specific genes mEcp, mEpo and mMbp in murine PMNC. We also found circadian variations for hPer1, hPer2, hBmal1, hClock, hEdn and hEcp mRNA and eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) in human eosinophils of both healthy and allergic people. Clock genes mPer1, mPer2, mClock and mBmal1 and MC‐specific genes mMcpt‐5, mMcpt‐7, mc‐kit and mFcεRI α‐chain and protein levels of mMCPT5 and mc‐Kit showed robust oscillation in mouse jejunum. Human intestinal MC expressed hPer1, hPer2 and hBmal1 as well as hTryptase and hFcεRI α‐chain, in a circadian manner. We found that pre‐stored histamine and de novo synthesized cysteinyl leukotrienes, were released in a circadian manner by MC following IgE‐mediated activation. In summary, the biological clock controls MC and eosinophils leading to circadian expression and release of their mediators and, hence it might be involved in the pathophysiology of allergy.     

C57小鼠肝、肾、脾、胸腺组织时钟基因的表达特点

目的探测不同脏器组织中时钟基因的表达水平及其波动性。方法用实时荧光定量PCR方法检测C57小鼠肝、肾、脾和胸腺中4种重要时钟基因mBMAL1、mPER1、mCRY1和mCRY2的表达。结果肝和肾中4种时钟基因的表达水平均有显著波动(P<0.01);而脾中仅mBMAL1、mPER1、mCRY1的节律性表达明显(P<0.01,P<0.001,P<0.05),并且波动振幅较为平和;胸腺中4种时钟基因的表达均不具备昼夜波动的特征,同时表达水平也与其他3种组织存在显著差异(P<0.01)。时钟基因所构成的环路在不同组织中也不尽相同,mPER1的负反馈效应在肝中较为主要,mCRY1和mCRY2的负反馈效应在肾和脾中较为主要。结论不同周围组织的分子时钟存在着显著的差异,其相关正负反馈元件和环路有待进一步研究阐明。     

生物钟紊乱与相关疾病关系的研究进展

生物钟又称生物节律,是生物体内周期性波动的行为和生理现象,近年来对生物钟产生和同步的分子机制的研究日益深入.研究表明,生物钟的周期性变化与生物体的某些疾病(如失眠、癌症、抑郁症、阿尔茨海默氏病等)息息相关.所以,对生物钟与相关疾病的关系的研究有重要的意义.本文就国内外有关生物钟的生理机制及生物钟相关疾病的研究综述如下,以期为更好地研究生物钟的生理机制及防治相关疾病提供理论依据.     

Circadian clock gene expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Circadian clock genes have been identified in humans but information regarding their expression has remained very limited. However from a basic point as well as in a diagnostic and therapeutic perspective, it is important to evaluate molecular clock gene expression. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells represent an ideal material to investigate non-invasively the human clock at the molecular level. Several studies including ours reported rhythmic expression of clock genes in these cells, with significant intersubject variability of expression. In addition, our results reveal the existence of different chronotypes of clock gene expression patterns and suggest specific regulatory mechanisms in these human cells as compared to other peripheral tissues.     

Chronic sleep deprivation altered the expression of circadian clock genes and aggravated Alzheimer's disease neuropathology

Circadian disruption is prevalent in Alzheimer''s disease (AD) and may contribute to cognitive impairment, psychological symptoms, and neurodegeneration. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of environmental and genetic factors on the molecular clock and to establish a link between circadian rhythm disturbance and AD. We investigated the pathological effects of chronic sleep deprivation (CSD) in the APP^swe/PS1^ΔE9 transgenic mice and their wild‐type (WT) littermates for 2 months and evaluated the expression levels of clock genes in the circadian rhythm‐related nuclei. Our results showed that CSD impaired learning and memory, and further exaggerated disease progression in the AD mice. Furthermore, CSD caused abnormal expression of Bmal1, Clock, and Cry1 in the circadian rhythm‐related nuclei of experimental mice, and these changes are more significant in AD mice. Abnormal expression of clock genes in AD mice suggested that the expression of clock genes is affected by APP/PS1 mutations. In addition, abnormal tau phosphorylation was found in the retrosplenial cortex, which was co‐located with the alteration of BMAL1 protein level. Moreover, the level of tyrosine hydroxylase in the locus coeruleus of AD and WT mice was significantly increased after CSD. There may be a potential link between the molecular clock, Aβ pathology, tauopathy, and the noradrenergic system. The results of this study provided new insights into the potential link between the disruption of circadian rhythm and the development of AD.     

Involvement of the luteinizing hormone surge in the regulation of ovary and oviduct clock gene expression in mice

Circadian dysfunction perturbs the female reproductive cycle. In particular, mice lacking the clock gene Bmal1 show severe infertility, implying that BMAL1 plays roles in ovulation and luteinization. Here, we examined temporal changes in clock gene expression in the ovary and oviduct before and during gonadotropin‐induced follicular growth, ovulation, and luteinization in sexually immature mice. While the oviduct did not show a drastic change in clock gene expression, Bmal1 expression in the ovary was higher than that in control mice during the period from 4 to 16 hr after human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) administration. Bmal1 expression reached a maximum at 16 hr after hCG administration, when follicle luteinization occurred. In an interesting manner, administration of hCG to ex vivo‐cultured oviduct triggered a shorter circadian period and inevitably resulted in phase advance. Together, our present data suggest that LH surge induces continuous expression of BMAL1 in the mouse ovary and modulates circadian phase in the mouse oviduct.     

哺乳动物日节律基因表达调控研究进展

生物体机能活动的日节律是一种基本的生命现象。在分子水平上研究日节律的调控机制,有助于更好地认识生命现象,揭示机体适应环境的内在机制,以及提高疾病的诊治水平。生物钟中枢的日节律基因通过分子水平的反馈环路产生节律性振荡,后者通过一定的信号放大机制统领整个脑和所有外周器官的节律性活动,进而产生整个机体协调一致的日节律。在生物体中,从基因到组织器官乃至系统的功能都与日节律紧密联系,因而日节律机制是生物学的重要研究领域。本文简要综述了哺乳动物生物钟基因表达和调控的有关研究进展。     

Biological clocks and incremental growth line formation in dentine

Dentine- and enamel-forming cells secrete matrix in consistent rhythmic phases, resulting in the formation of successive microscopic growth lines inside tooth crowns and roots. Experimental studies of various mammals have proven that these lines are laid down in subdaily, daily (circadian), and multidaily rhythms, but it is less clear how these rhythms are initiated and maintained. In 2001, researchers reported that lesioning the so-called master biological clock, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), halted daily line formation in rat dentine, whereas subdaily lines persisted. More recently, a key clock gene (Bmal1) expressed in the SCN in a circadian manner was also found to be active in dentine- and enamel- secretory cells. To probe these potential neurological and local mechanisms for the production of rhythmic lines in teeth, we reexamined the role of the SCN in growth line formation in Wistar rats and investigated the presence of daily lines in Bmal1 knockout mice (Bmal1^−/−). In contrast to the results of the 2001 study, we found that both daily and subdaily growth lines persisted in rat dentine after complete or partial SCN lesion in the majority of individuals. In mice, after transfer into constant darkness, daily rhythms continued to manifest as incremental lines in the dentine of each Bmal1 genotype (wild-type, Bmal^+/–, and Bmal1^−/−). These results affirm that the manifestation of biological rhythms in teeth is a robust phenomenon, imply a more autonomous role of local biological clocks in tooth growth than previously suggested, and underscore the need further to elucidate tissue-specific circadian biology and its role in incremental line formation. Investigations of this nature will strengthen an invaluable system for determining growth rates and calendar ages from mammalian hard tissues, as well as documenting the early lives of fossil hominins and other primates.     

Atypical patterns of circadian clock gene expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Circadian (24 h) rhythms in physiology and behaviour are observed in all mammals, including humans. These rhythms are generated by circadian clocks located in the hypothalamus and also in most peripheral tissues. Clock genes are essential components of circadian clocks, and mutations or polymorphisms within several of them have been associated with circadian disorders in humans. However, information about human clock gene expression has remained very limited. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) represent an ideal material to investigate non-invasively the human clock at the molecular level. In the present study, we analysed the expression of three key clock genes, PER2, BMAL1 and REV-ERB in PBMCs from ten healthy humans over a 24-h cycle. PER2 and BMAL1 were found to oscillate throughout the light–dark cycle in all subjects. Interestingly, despite normal melatonin and cortisol secretion patterns, two groups of subjects could be distinguished with significantly different mean PER2 and BMAL1 acrophases. BMAL1 oscillated with approximately the same phase as PER2, instead of being anti-phasic as anticipated from data previously obtained in other peripheral tissues. Furthermore, this unusual phase relationship of PER2 and BMAL1 in human PBMCs was associated with a constant expression of REV-ERB, a crucial regulator of BMAL1, which is highly rhythmic in many other systems. These results reveal the existence of different chronotypes of clock gene expression patterns and suggest specific regulatory mechanisms in human PBMCs.Michèle Teboul and Marie-Audrey Barrat-Petit contributed equally to this work     

Rheumatoid arthritis and the biological clock

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease of unknown cause and a chronic and progressive inflammatory disorder ensuing in genetically predisposed subjects, characterized by synovitis causing joint destruction, as well as inflammation in body organ systems, leading to anatomical alteration and functional disability. Immune competent cells, deregulated synoviocytes and cytokines play a key role in the pathophysiological mechanisms. The immune system function shows time-related variations related to the influence of the neuroendocrine system and driven by the circadian clock circuitry. Immune processes and symptom intensity in RA are characterized by oscillations during the day following a pattern of circadian rhythmicity. A cross-talk between inflammatory and circadian pathways is involved in RA pathogenesis and underlies the mutual actions of disruption of the circadian clock circuitry on immune system function as well as of inflammation on the function of the biological clock. Modulation of molecular processes and humoral factors mediating in RA the interplay between the biological clock and the immune response and underlying the rhythmic fluctuations of pathogenic processes and symptomatology could represent a promising therapeutic strategy in the future.     

Potential role of the pancreatic hormone insulin in resetting human peripheral clocks

Mammalian circadian rhythms are phase‐adjusted and amplified by external cues such as light and food. While the light input pathway via the central clock, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, has been well defined, the mechanism of feeding‐induced circadian resetting remains undefined, particularly in humans. Animal studies have indicated that insulin, a pancreatic hormone that is secreted rapidly in response to feeding, is an input factor for a few peripheral clocks, such as liver and adipose tissue. In this study, using plucked and cultured hair follicles as a representative human peripheral clock, we examined the effect of insulin on circadian characteristics of clock gene expression. Our results demonstrate that insulin phase‐shifts or amplifies the clock gene expression rhythms of ex vivo cultured hair follicles in a phase‐responsive manner. To reduce the possibility that differences in species, genetic or environmental background, and experimental methods affected experimental outcomes, we also treated surgically extracted whisker follicles of Period2::Luciferase (Per2^Luc) mice with insulin and found that the effect of insulin on clock gene expression was reproducible. These results suggest the possibility that feeding‐induced insulin resets peripheral circadian clocks in humans.     

Compartmentalized expression of light-induced clock genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the diurnal grass rat (Arvicanthis niloticus)

Photic responses of the circadian system are mediated through light-induced clock gene expression in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). In nocturnal rodents, depending on the timing of light exposure, Per1 and Per2 gene expression shows distinct compartmentalized patterns that correspond to the behavioral responses. Whether the gene- and region-specific induction patterns are unique to nocturnal animals, or are also present in diurnal species is unknown. We explored this question by examining the light-induced Per1 and Per2 gene expression in functionally distinct SCN subregions, using diurnal grass rats Arvicanthis niloticus. Light exposure during nighttime induced Per1 and Per2 expression in the SCN, showing unique spatiotemporal profiles depending on the phase of the light exposure. After a phase delaying light pulse (LP) in the early night, strong Per1 induction was observed in the retinorecipient core region of the SCN, while strong Per2 induction was observed throughout the entire SCN. After a phase advancing LP in the late night, Per1 was first induced in the core and then extended into the whole SCN, accompanied by a weak Per2 induction. This compartmentalized expression pattern is very similar to that observed in nocturnal rodents, suggesting that the same molecular and intercellular pathways underlying acute photic responses are present in both diurnal and nocturnal species. However, after an LP in early subjective day, which induces phase advances in diurnal grass rats, but not in nocturnal rodents, we did not observe any Per1 or Per2 induction in the SCN. This result suggests that in spite of remarkable similarities in the SCN of diurnal and nocturnal rodents, unique mechanisms are involved in mediating the phase shifts of diurnal animals during the subjective day.     

The expression of melanopsin and clock genes in Xenopus laevis melanophores and their modulation by melatonin

Vertebrates have a central clock and also several peripheral clocks. Light responses might result from the integration of light signals by these clocks. The dermal melanophores of Xenopus laevis have a photoreceptor molecule denominated melanopsin (OPN4x). The mechanisms of the circadian clock involve positive and negative feedback. We hypothesize that these dermal melanophores also present peripheral clock characteristics. Using quantitative PCR, we analyzed the pattern of temporal expression of Opn4x and the clock genes Per1, Per2, Bmal1, and Clock in these cells subjected to a 14-h light:10-h dark (14L:10D) regime or constant darkness (DD). Also, in view of the physiological role of melatonin in the dermal melanophores of X. laevis, we determined whether melatonin modulates the expression of these clock genes. These genes show a time-dependent expression pattern when these cells are exposed to 14L:10D, which differs from the pattern observed under DD. Cells kept in DD for 5 days exhibited overall increased mRNA expression for Opn4x and Clock, and a lower expression for Per1, Per2, and Bmal1. When the cells were kept in DD for 5 days and treated with melatonin for 1 h, 24 h before extraction, the mRNA levels tended to decrease for Opn4x and Clock, did not change for Bmal1, and increased for Per1 and Per2 at different Zeitgeber times (ZT). Although these data are limited to one-day data collection, and therefore preliminary, we suggest that the dermal melanophores of X. laevis might have some characteristics of a peripheral clock, and that melatonin modulates, to a certain extent, melanopsin and clock gene expression.     

小鼠外周组织时钟基因启动子区甲基化分析

 摘要：目的 建立一种简单快速经济的检测八个主要时钟基因BMAL1、BMAL2、CLOCK、NPAS2、PER1、PER2、CRY1和CRY2启动子区甲基化状态的方法。同时检测小鼠外周组织肝、心、肾、胸腺、睾丸时钟基因启动子区甲基化状态。方法 用偏重亚硫酸氢钠和对苯二酚对基因组DNA进行脱氨基修饰。修饰后的DNA为模板,两套不同的引物对：甲基化特异性引物对和非甲基化特异性引物扩增小鼠肝、心、肾、胸腺、睾丸组织时钟基因启动子区。PCR产物进行电泳和测序。结果 扩增产物与预期片段大小相符合。PCR产物经过直接测序得到进一步证实。结论 成功建立了检测小鼠时钟基因启动子区甲基化的方法,为检测小鼠周围组织时钟基因启动子区甲基化提供了新的方法。同时,成年小鼠所有的八个时钟基因均为非甲基化状态。     

Detecting and exploiting the circadian clock in rheumatoid arthritis

Over the past four decades, research on 24-h rhythms has yielded numerous remarkable findings, revealing their genetic, molecular, and physiological significance for immunity and various diseases. Thus, circadian rhythms are of fundamental importance to mammals, as their disruption and misalignment have been associated with many diseases and the abnormal functioning of many physiological processes. In this article, we provide a brief overview of the molecular regulation of 24-h rhythms, their importance for immunity, the deleterious effects of misalignment, the link between such pathological rhythms and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and the potential exploitation of chronobiological rhythms for the chronotherapy of inflammatory autoimmune diseases, using RA as an example.     

时钟基因PER调控血压的研究进展

时钟基因的异常表达与血压昼夜节律紊乱以及高血压的发生发展密切相关.本文总结了时钟基因周期基因(PER)与血压昼夜节律的关系,在与血压调控相关的外周组织器官中PER的异常表达对血压的影响以及高血压时间疗法的研究进展.旨在为高血压的临床诊治和预后提供新思路.