Surgery of lymph nodes in papillary thyroid cancer

Optimal treatment for differentiated thyroid carcinoma is controversial with respect to the extent of thyroid resection, the extent and technique of nodal dissection and use of prophylactic radioiodine treatment. Postoperative complications, such as recurrent laryngeal nerve injury and definitive hypoparathyroidism, have carried great weight in the discussion regarding how radical the surgical treatment should be. The discussion of whether total thyroidectomy or lesser procedures should be the treatment for thyroid carcinomas has been protracted. Now, reasonable agreement exists that total thyroidectomy is the best treatment and the focus of the discussion has moved to the treatment of lymph nodes. At the time of diagnosis, node metastases are a common finding in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer, in particular papillary carcinoma. The argument supporting a radical approach to lymph node excision is that the presence of node metastases increases the recurrence rate. Advocates for the conservative approach believe that little association exists between node metastases and death from thyroid carcinoma. This paper reviews relevant medical literature published in the English language on surgery of lymph nodes in differentiated thyroid cancer with well-controlled trials. Searches were last updated in June 2006.     

Surgery of lymph nodes in papillary thyroid cancer

Optimal treatment for differentiated thyroid carcinoma is controversial with respect to the extent of thyroid resection, the extent and technique of nodal dissection and use of prophylactic radioiodine treatment. Postoperative complications, such as recurrent laryngeal nerve injury and definitive hypoparathyroidism, have carried great weight in the discussion regarding how radical the surgical treatment should be. The discussion of whether total thyroidectomy or lesser procedures should be the treatment for thyroid carcinomas has been protracted. Now, reasonable agreement exists that total thyroidectomy is the best treatment and the focus of the discussion has moved to the treatment of lymph nodes. At the time of diagnosis, node metastases are a common finding in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer, in particular papillary carcinoma. The argument supporting a radical approach to lymph node excision is that the presence of node metastases increases the recurrence rate. Advocates for the conservative approach believe that little association exists between node metastases and death from thyroid carcinoma. This paper reviews relevant medical literature published in the English language on surgery of lymph nodes in differentiated thyroid cancer with well-controlled trials. Searches were last updated in June 2006.     

Lymph node management in clinically node-negative patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma

Aims

Systematic lymph node dissection in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) remains controversial. The objective of this study was to study the pattern of lymph node spread in patients with PTC clinically node-negative and then to propose a lymph node management strategy.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the records of patients who had undergone total thyroidectomy and a systematic central neck dissection (CND) and lateral neck dissection. Ninety patients with PTC without lymph nodes metastases (LNM) detected on preoperative palpation and ultrasonographic examination were included.

Results

Forty-one patients (45.5%) had LNM. Twenty-eight patients (31%) had a central and a lateral involvement. Thirteen patients (14.5%) had only a central involvement. All the patients without LNM in the central compartment were also free in the lateral compartment. There was no correlation between LNM status and TNM staging.The largest LNM in the central compartment was smaller than or equal to 5 mm in 66% of the cases, and that could explain the lack of sensitivity of the preoperative ultrasonographic examination.

Conclusion

CND could be considered at preoperative or intraoperative diagnosis of PTC whereas lateral neck dissection should be performed only in patients with preoperative suspected and/or intraoperatively proven LNM. Systematic CND allows an objective evaluation of lymph node status in this central cervical area where the LNM are particularly small and difficult to detect preoperatively.     

Clinically useful detection criteria for sentinel nodes in patients with breast cancer using a radioisotope technique

BACKGROUND: The radioisotope technique has been used to identify sentinel nodes in patients with breast cancer. However, quantitative analysis of the radioactivity for detecting the sentinel nodes was not previously examined. In this study, we considered a clinically useful criterion for detecting sentinel nodes by a detailed analysis of 312 sentinel nodes using the radioisotope technique. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients with T1-2, N0 breast cancer were eligible for this study. The nodes with the highest radioactivity after injection of technetium-labeled tin colloids were identified as hot nodes. The radioactivities of the hot nodes and the background counts of the axillary basin were examined in order to establish new criteria for detecting the sentinel nodes. RESULTS: Between May 1997 and December 2001, 312 hot nodes were detected in 183 of 186 patients (98.4%). Since the false-negative rate for metastasis in hot nodes was only 2.1% (1/48), they could serve as sentinel nodes to predict the nodal status. However, there was a wide distribution of the hot nodes and the background in terms of absolute counts and a criterion for the sentinel nodes could not be established in terms of the absolute counts. When we adopted the criterion of sentinel nodes with a >/=100 count ratio in relation to the background, only 169 hot nodes (54.3%) met our definition. When the criterion of a >or=10 count ratio was adopted, all hot nodes met our definition and all other nodes remained non-sentinel nodes. CONCLUSION: The criterion for defining sentinel nodes in our method is a node with a >or=10 count ratio with respect to the background. It is recommended that an analysis based on such objective data should be investigated in order to provide surgeons with more accurate and clinically useful criteria for detecting sentinel nodes.     

Removal of all radioactive sentinel nodes in breast cancer improves the detection of positive sentinel nodes

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to evaluate if it is necessary to remove all the radioactive sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) not seen on lymphoscintigraphy in order to accurately stage breast cancer patients. MATERIAL AND METHODS: From March 1999 to March 2006, SLN biopsy was performed in 461 patients. All patients were only injected with radioisotope. Lymphoscintigraphy was performed in all the patients. The mean number of SLNs removed was 2.1 (range 1-15). RESULTS: The SLN was positive in 133 patients (28.8%). Lymphoscintigraphy accurately predicted the number of SLNs identified intraoperatively in 243 patients (52.7%). In 175 patients (37.9%) there were more SLNs identified intraoperatively than were seen on lymphos cintigraphy. In 11 (6.2%) of these 175 patients, additional SLNs identified intraoperatively harboured metastasis. Type of injection, need for a second injection, tumour location and age were not identified as statistically significantly associated with additional positive SLNs identified intraoperatively and not seen on lymphoscintigraphy. CONCLUSIONS: Lymphoscintigraphy does not accurately predict the number of SLNs identified intraoperatively, this number being underestimated. Surgeons should remove all radioactive SLNs to improve the detection of positive SLNs.     

纳米碳负显影在甲状腺乳头状癌根治性手术应用中的疗效分析

背景与目的：甲状腺癌的发病率逐年增高,其手术并发症甲状旁腺和喉返神经损伤的发生风险高。该研究旨在探讨纳米碳负显影技术在甲状腺乳头状癌(papillary thyroid carcinoma,PTC)根治术中的操作技巧及对喉返神经与甲状旁腺的保护疗效,从而减少此类并发症的发生。方法：收集2015年4—8月收治的48例初治PTC患者的临床病理学资料并随机分为两组。A组(24例)常规采用精细被膜解剖法行单侧甲状腺腺叶切除/全甲状腺切除+单/双中央组淋巴结清扫术;B组(24例)则在稍游离甲状腺后注射纳米碳5 min后再行常规操作。比较分析两组手术时间、术中出血量、神经损伤发生率、暂时性低钙血症发生率、淋巴结清扫数及转移比率等临床资料差异。结果：对于单侧甲状腺腺叶切除+中央组淋巴结清扫术患者,B组除淋巴结清扫数较A组明显增多外(P<0.05),其他各项指标在两组间差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。对于全甲状腺切除+双侧中央组淋巴结清扫术患者,B组手术时间、暂时性低钙血症发生率显著低于A组(P<0.05),淋巴结清扫数明显高于A组(P<0.05)。B组中单/双侧黑染淋巴结中癌转移率分别为26.7%和33.3%,非黑染淋巴结阳性转移率分别为11.8%和25.9%。结论：纳米碳负显影技术在PTC根治术中有利于甲状旁腺的保护及清扫淋巴结数目的提高,尤其是在双侧甲状腺癌根治术中的优势更为明显。     

Use of preoperative lymphoscintigraphy and intraoperative gamma-probe detection for identification of the sentinel lymph node in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma

Aims

Lymph node metastases for papillary thyroid carcinoma are associated with an increased incidence of locoregional recurrence. The use of preoperative lymphoscintigraphy and intraoperative gamma probe detection to localize the sentinel lymph node in papillary thyroid carcinoma was investigated.

Methods

From February 2004 to December 2005 the sentinel lymph node technique was studied in 64 consecutive patients with cytological evidence of papillary thyroid carcinoma. The day before surgery, patients were submitted to US-guided peri-tumoural injection of the radiotracer and a lymphoscintigraphy was performed. In the operating room a total thyroidectomy was done, and thanks to a hand-held gamma probe the sentinel lymph node and all lymph nodes, belonging to the sentinel node compartment, were removed.

Results

The gamma probe identified the sentinel lymph node in 62 patients (96.8%). We found 48 (77.5%) sentinel lymph node without metastases; 12 (19.3%) with metastases and 2 (3.2%) with micrometastases. In 7 cases (11.3%), with a negative sentinel lymph node, metastases in other nodes of the same region were recorded. In 22 cases (34.3%) the ultrasound give an erroneous indication (P = 0.004). Five patients (8.0%), 4 with multifocal cancer, had a positive postoperative lymphoscintigraphy.

Conclusion

This study shows that the sentinel lymph node technique for papillary thyroid carcinoma is feasible, repeatable, and more accurate than preoperative ultrasound. In cases of multifocal thyroid lesions more patients should be enrolled to establish the utility of the radio-guided technique.     

Computed tomography lymphography for the detection of sentinel nodes in patients with gastric carcinoma

The sentinel node (SN) concept has been found to be feasible in gastric cancer. However, the lymphatic network of gastric cancer may be more complex, and it may be difficult to visualize all the SN distributed in unexpected areas by conventional modalities. In this study, we evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of CT lymphography for the detection of SN in gastric cancer. A total 24 patients with early gastric cancer were enrolled in the study. Three modalities (CT lymphography, dye and radioisotope [RI] methods) were used for the detection of SN. The images of CT lymphography were obtained at 10 min after injection of contrast agents. The SN were successfully identified by CT lymphography in 83.3% of patients; detection rates by the dye and RI methods were 95% and 100%, respectively. Most patients, in whom SN were successfully detected by CT lymphography, had positive results at 5 min after injection of the contrast material. The SN stations detected by CT lymphography were consistent with or included those detected by dye and/or RI methods. In conclusion, CT lymphography for the detection of SN in gastric cancer is feasible and has several advantages. However, based on this initial experience, CT lymphography had a relatively low detection rate compared with conventional methods, and further efforts will be necessary to improve the detection rate and widen the clinical application of CT lymphography for the detection of SN in gastric cancer. (Cancer Sci 2010; 101: 2586–2590)     

Lymph nodes in gastric cancer

Surgery is the only curative therapy for gastric cancer and controversy still exist on the extend of surgery. As the lymphatic distribution of stomach is very complex, the determination of the actual lymph node involvement is important for making the decision in order to avoid complications. Sentinel node navigation surgery has recently been introduced in gastrointestinal tract cancer. Present article reviews the detection techniques of lymph nodes and significance of lymphadenectomies in gastric cancer.     

The detection of sentinel lymph nodes in laparoscopic surgery can eliminate systemic lymphadenectomy for patients with early stage endometrial cancer

Background

The examination of a sentinel lymph node (SLN), where lymph node metastasis first occurs, may be advocated as an alternative staging technique. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and detection rates of an SLN biopsy in patients with endometrial cancer.

Study design

Two hundred and eleven patients with endometrial cancer underwent an SLN biopsy at hysterectomy using three kinds of tracers including 99m-technetium-labeled tin colloid (^99mTc), indigo carmine and indocyanine green. Factors related to the side-specific detection rate, sensitivity and false negative rate were analyzed.

Results

The detection rates of the SLN biopsy using ^99mTc, indigo carmine and indocyanine green were 77.9, 17.0 and 73.4%, respectively. The detection rate was lower in elderly patients (≥60 years) (67.9 vs 89.2%, p < 0.01), patients with >50% myometrial invasion (68.3 vs 85.2%, p < 0.01), patients with high-grade tumors (69.5 vs 84.9%, p < 0.01) and patients who underwent laparotomy (71.2 vs 84.9%, p < 0.01). There were no significant differences in body mass index. The sensitivity was not significantly different in any factor. However, the false negative rate was higher in patients with > 50% myometrial invasion (11.5 vs 1.2%, p < 0.01), high-grade tumors (13.3 vs 0.8%, p < 0.01) and who underwent laparotomy (12.2 vs 0.4%, p < 0.01).

Conclusion

Patients who underwent laparoscopy with < 50% myometrial invasion and low-grade tumors not only have higher detection rates, but also have lower false negative rates. These patients may avoid systemic lymphadenectomy according to the status of the SLN biopsy.

     

Cellular radiosensitivity of patients with papillary thyroid cancer.

Cultured skin fibroblasts from patients with papillary (differentiated) thyroid carcinomas were compared to those from healthy subjects, ataxia telangiectasia (AT) homozygotes and AT heterozygotes for colony-forming ability after low dose-rate irradiation, and post-irradiation DNA synthesis as indicated by uptake of [3H]-thymidine. The cells from the cancer patients exhibited enhanced radiosensitivity (intermediate between normal and AT) and less than normal level of radioinduced inhibition of DNA synthesis.     

前哨淋巴结检测在早期宫颈癌临床应用的研究进展

目的:总结近年来国内外前哨淋巴结活检术(SLNB)在早期宫颈癌中的应用进展.方法:应用PubMed及CNKI全文数据库,以前哨淋巴结、宫颈颈癌为关键词检索2000-01-2007-02相关宫颈癌前哨淋巴结的文献.文献纳入标准:1)影响前哨淋巴结的检出因素研究;2)前哨淋巴结识别方法的研究;3)前哨淋巴结活检术在早期宫颈癌研究.粗选有105篇的相关文献,根据纳入标准,纳入分析23篇文献.结果:前哨淋巴结是肿瘤细胞区域淋巴引流发生转移必经的第一站淋巴结.在早期宫颈癌研究中,可以代表盆腔淋巴结的转移状态.患者的临床病理特征、示踪剂、病理学检查方法是影响SLNB的主要因素.SLNB提高了早期宫颈癌保留生育功能手术的安全性.目前前哨淋巴结活检术在早期宫颈癌研究中显示此项技术的可行性及安全性.结论:研究前哨淋巴结活检术在早期宫颈癌中的应用具有重要意义,可以减少手术的并发症,提高微转移的检出率.     

Axillary lymph-node dissection for positive sentinel nodes in breast cancer patients.

AIM: The aim was to identify a subset of breast cancer patient with positive sentinel nodes (SNs) for whom secondary axillary clearance would be unnecessary.METHODS: Between March 1999 and May 2001, 288 patients with T0-T2 breast cancer less than 3cm in diameter had SN detection either by a colorimetric method or using a combined technique. SNs were stained with haematoxylin and eosin (H&E). For all negative SNs, serial sections and immunochemistry (IHC) were performed. All patients with positive SNs underwent a complete axillary lymph node dissection. One hundred and twenty patients were SN positve.RESULTS: Non-sentinel node positivity (NSNP) was closely associated with the size of the tumour (14.3%, 54.1% and 51.8% for pT1a-b, pT1c and pT2 tumours respectively) and with the size of the SN metastasis: 15.9% IHC detected micrometastasis, 33.3% and 78.8% micro- and macrometastasis detected with H&E staining respectively. NSNP was found in 24.0% and 42.8% of patients with pT1c breast cancer and with micrometastasis detected by IHC and H&E staining. The node positivity rate reached 81.1% for pT1c lesions with macrometastasis in the SN. For the patients with pT2 breast cancer, these rates were 12.5% (IHC), 28.5% (H&E) 91.1% (macrometastasis).CONCLUSIONS: We are unable to isolate precisely a subset of patients for whom total axillary lymph node dissection would be unnecessary. A subset of 14 small tumours (<1cm diameter) demonstrated micrometastases in the SN without NSNP.     

Lymph node dissection in papillary or follicular thyroid carcinoma

BACKGROUND: Prospective randomized studies aimed at evaluating the different therapeutic protocols for the treatment of papillary or follicular carcinoma are lacking at the moment. Although total thyroidectomy is widely accepted, indication to locoregional lymphadenectomy is strongly debated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifty-four patients with papillary or follicular thyroid carcinoma (45 papillary and 9 follicular) underwent functional evaluation of the gland before intervention, FNAB included Surgical management was carried out as follows: 41 total thyroidectomy, 6 lobectomy with further totalization in 5, 6 total thyroidectomy plus central compartment lymphadenectomy and 1 left laterocervical lymphadenectomy (papillary carcinoma, treated elsewhere through total thyroidectomy plus central and right laterocervical lymphadenectomy). All operated patients were submitted to whole body scintigraphy and treated thereafter by radiometabolic therapy and chronic hormone suppressive therapy. RESULTS: Fifty-one patients are currently alive, 3 died from non-related causes; surgical complications included 1 permanent impairment of inferior laryngeal nerve function and 1 case of hypoparathyroidism. The follow-up was from 1 to 139 months. DISCUSSION: The optimal treatment of lymph node metastases, especially for papillary carcinomas, has not yet been defined. Two trends are evident concerning lymphadenectomy: the first one suggests routine lymphadenectomy, the second supports lymphadenectomy by necessity. In follicular carcinoma lymphadenectomy is recommended only in the presence of clinical evidence of lymph node involvement. Occult differentiated carcinoma does not require any further treatment of lymph nodes. CONCLUSION: Considering the high efficacy of radiometabolic treatment after total thyroidectomy combined with chronic TSH inhibition through L-tyrosine administration, lymphadenectomy is suggested only by necessity.     

Lymphatic mapping and sentinel node harvesting in patients with recurrent breast cancer

AIMS: To evaluate the feasibility and consequences of lymphatic mapping and a ("repeat") sentinel lymph node (SLN) procedure in patients with breast cancer relapse after previous breast and axillary surgery. METHODS: Review and presentation of a patient cohort. All SLN procedures included lymphoscintigraphy and blue dye injection technique. RESULTS: Twelve cases are described: two patients after a previous SLN procedure and ten after a previous complete axillary lymph node dissection (ALND). Ten patients (83%) had a successful repeat SLN biopsy. After previous ALND, lymphoscintigraphy revealed drainage towards the internal mammary chain in three patients, and contralateral axillary drainage in four. Based on the information from the "repeat" SLN biopsy further treatment strategy was altered in seven of the 12 patients. CONCLUSION: Lymphatic mapping and (repeat) SLN biopsy is possible and can be informative in patients who present with a relapse of breast cancer after previous surgery for primary breast cancer.     

前哨淋巴结检测在妇科恶性肿瘤中的应用

前哨淋巴结检测技术在临床上的应用,对恶性肿瘤的外科处理具有非常重要的指导意义.其在恶性黑色素瘤和乳腺癌中已得到较为成功的应用,在妇科恶性肿瘤中的应用尚处在研究阶段.现就前哨淋巴结检测技术在妇科肿瘤中应用的国内外现状和目前尚待解决的问题作一简要综述.     

非小细胞肺癌淋巴结转移相关因素的研究

目的肿瘤淋巴结转移与细胞外基质降解、浸润、迁移及肿瘤血管形成有关。检测尿激酶纤溶酶原激活物（uPA）、尿激酶纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂（PAI-1）、血管内皮生长因子（VEGF）和微血管密度（MVD）在非小细胞肺癌组织中的表达以及与淋巴结转移的关系。方法采用免疫组织化学方法联合检测52例非小细胞肺癌组织中uPA、PAI-1、VEGF和MVD的表达水平。结果uPA、PAI-1、VEGF和MVD在非小细胞肺癌中的表达显著高于正常肺组织,影响淋巴结转移的相关因素是TNM分期（P〈0．001）、肿瘤侵犯程度（P=0．034）、uPA表达（P=0．048）、VEGF表达（P=0．047）。多因素分析表明VEGF高表达是淋巴结转移的独立影响因素（P=0．043）。结论uPA、VEGF高表达与NSCLC．的淋巴结转移密切相关,促进了肿瘤转移。