SGLT2 inhibitors for the treatment of diabetes: a patent review (2013-2018)

Introduction: The sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) is ascribed to target renal tubular glucose re-absorption, and its inhibition has been proved to induce glucosuria which improves the glycemic index. Accordingly, SGLT2 inhibitors have found to be the promising class of antidiabetic agents for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. A large number of SGLT2 inhibitors have developed through structural modification and investigated for their ability to selectivity inhibit SGLT2 transporters with better bioavailability.

Areas covered: This review comprises a summary of patent applications (2013–2018) of SGLT2 inhibitors with focus on chemical structural advancement and therapeutic potentials in the management of diabetes and related disorders.

Expert opinion: SGLT2 inhibitors exert multiple metabolic benefits, including reduced glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), improved glycemic control (fasting and postprandial), reduced body weight, reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure and improved HDL cholesterol. Due to the virtue of no interference with insulin action and secretion, their efficacy remains the same even in presence of progressive β cell failure in type 2 diabetes. Additionally, few members of this class have been reported to exhibit cardioprotective, renoprotective, and anticancer activity. However, more study on the long-term outcomes in patients taking SGLT2 inhibitors is warranted.     

Effect of ticagrelor on the pharmacokinetics of ethinyl oestradiol and levonorgestrel in healthy volunteers

Abstract

Background:

Cytochrome P450 3 A is involved in ticagrelor and ethinyl oestradiol/levonorgestrel metabolism; so a potential drug–drug interaction may occur.     

New directions for pharmacotherapy in the treatment of acute coronary syndrome

Introduction: Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) are one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Several landmark trials, followed by a widespread introduction of new agents, have significantly improved ACS outcomes in recent years. However, despite the use of contemporary therapy, a substantial number of ACS patients continue to suffer from cardiovascular events.

Areas covered: The aim of this review was to summarize available data on innovative drugs and pharmacological strategies that have potential to amend the current ACS therapy. We present the results of recent large clinical trials, as well as insights from ongoing phase III and phase IV studies, exploring the value of new strategies for the improvement of outcomes in ACS.

Expert opinion: More potent platelet inhibition, more profound lipid reduction and possibly anti-inflammatory action are considered to have potential to further reduce the rates of adverse cardiovascular and thrombotic events in ACS patients. ‘Hit fast, hit hard’ approach regarding novel antiplatelet and lipid-lowering therapy seems attractive, but it has to be considered that these strategies may be associated with increased adverse events rate. Introduction of cangrelor and ezetimibe, and potentially future recognition of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 antibodies, are likely to alter the landscape of ACS pharmacotherapy.     

Efficacy and safety of ticagrelor in patients with acute coronary syndrome: A meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is a dangerous and urgent clinical pattern of coronary artery disease. Aspirin and adenosine diphosphate P2Y₁₂ receptor antagonists are the standard dual anti‐platelet therapy for patients with ACS. Ticagrelor is a new oral antagonist of the adenosine diphosphate P2Y₁₂ receptor. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have evaluated the efficacy and safety of ticagrelor compared to clopidogrel or prasugrel in patients with ACS, obtaining conflicting results. Thus, we conducted a meta‐analysis of these RCTs to determine the efficacy and safety of ticagrelor in patients with ACS. Results of the meta‐analysis indicate that ticagrelor decreased the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and all‐cause death, but increased the risk of bleeding events. In Asiatic patients, analysis indicates that ticagrelor did not decrease the risk of MACE and all‐cause death, while increasing the risk of bleeding events. Together, this meta‐analysis suggests that ticagrelor was more effective, but less safe than clopidogrel and prasugrel in patients with ACS. Subgroup analysis indicates that ticagrelor was not more effective, although less safe than clopidogrel in Asiatic patients, thus more evidence is needed to further evaluate the efficacy and safety of ticagrelor in Asiatic patients.     

The discovery and development of prasugrel

Introduction: Prasugrel (CS-747, LY640315) is a third-generation thienopyridine, which gained approval by the FDA in 2009 for its use in patients with acute coronary syndrome undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention.

Areas covered: This article focuses on the preclinical profile of prasugrel. Using published preclinical and clinical studies, the authors summarize the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacogenomics of prasugrel and their distinguishing features in efficacy and safety.

Expert opinion: Prasugrel has a more rapid, more potent antiplatelet effect with less interindividual response variability when compared to clopidogrel. Those therapeutic advantages are attributed to features of its chemical structure that favor the metabolic conversion of prasugrel to its active metabolite. However, the increased risk of bleeding has been associated with a greater antiplatelet effect and dosing profile; this is especially the case in those patients who are at a higher risk of bleeding complications. It is therefore important for an optimal dosing strategy of prasugrel to be identified to provide a formulation that has the best balance for efficacy and safety.     

血小板P2Y12受体拮抗剂临床研究进展

P2Y12受体拮抗剂是一类作用于血小板P2Y12受体、抑制血小板聚集的药物,临床上主要用于预防和治疗心血管疾病的血栓事件。氯吡格雷是目前临床上首选的双重抗血小板药物之一,但其疗效受限于CYP2C19基因的多态性、与质子泵抑制剂(PPIs)的相互作用和起效缓慢等。目前,一些新型P2Y12受体拮抗剂类抗血小板药物(如普拉格雷、替卡格雷等)已经进入临床,几项大型临床试验对其疗效和安全性进行了评价。本文对比了新型P2Y12受体拮抗剂与氯吡格雷在药理学、药代动力学、有效性和安全性方面的差异,并探讨其临床应用,为临床合理用药提供参考。     

Cytochrome P4502C9: an enzyme of major importance in human drug metabolism

Accumulating evidence indicates that CYP2C9 ranks amongst the most important drug metabolizing enzymes in humans. Substrates for CYP2C9 include fluoxetine, losartan, phenytoin, tolbutamide, torsemide, S-warfarin, and numerous NSAIDs. CYP2C9 activity in vivo is inducible by rifampicin. Evidence suggests that CYP2C9 substrates may also be induced variably by carbamazepine, ethanol and phenobarbitone. Apart from the mutual competitive inhibition which may occur between alternate substrates, numerous other drugs have been shown to inhibit CYP2C9 activity in vivo and/or in vitro . Clinically significant inhibition may occur with coadministration of amiodarone, fluconazole, phenylbutazone, sulphinpyrazone, sulphaphenazole and certain other sulphonamides. Polymorphisms in the coding region of the CYP2C9 gene produce variants at amino acid residues 144 (Arg144Cys) and 359 (Ile359Leu) of the CYP2C9 protein. Individuals homozygous for Leu359 have markedly diminished metabolic capacities for most CYP2C9 substrates, although the frequency of this allele is relatively low. Consistent with the modulation of enzyme activity by genetic and other factors, wide interindividual variability occurs in the elimination and/or dosage requirements of prototypic CYP2C9 substrates. Individualisation of dose is essential for those CYP2C9 substrates with a narrow therapeutic index.     

A multiple dose study of prasugrel (CS-747), a novel thienopyridine P2Y12 inhibitor, compared with clopidogrel in healthy humans

AIMS: This double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was designed to evaluate the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability of prasugrel (CS-747, LY640315), a novel thienopyridine P2Y(12) ADP receptor antagonist compared with clopidogrel, during multiple oral dosing in healthy subjects. METHODS: Thirty subjects received placebo, prasugrel 5 mg, 10 mg, or 20 mg, or clopidogrel 75 mg orally, daily for 10 days. Platelet aggregation, bleeding time, and prasugrel metabolites were measured and adverse events were recorded. RESULTS: Inhibition of ADP-induced platelet aggregation reached steady state by day 3 following prasugrel 10 and 20 mg compared with 5 days for clopidogrel 75 mg or prasugrel 5 mg. Compared with placebo, at 24 h after the last dose of study drug, inhibition of platelet aggregation using (20 microm) ADP was significantly higher in the prasugrel 10 mg group (58.2 +/- 4.9% vs. 9.2 +/- 4.0%, P < 0.001) with no difference in the clopidogrel group (15.7 +/- 6.8% vs. 9.2 +/- 4.0%, P = 0.78). With 5 microm ADP, inhibition of platelet aggregation with prasugrel 10 mg and clopidogrel 75 mg was significantly higher than with placebo (prasugrel 10 mg, 70.5 +/- 4.7%; clopidogrel 75 mg, 36.5 +/- 9.0%; vs. placebo, 11.3 +/- 5.1%; P < 0.0001 and P = 0.02). On day 10 at 4 h postdose, bleeding time was prolonged with prasugrel 10 mg (prasugrel 10 mg, 706 +/- 252 s vs. placebo, 221 +/- 38 s, P = 0.05) but not with clopidogrel (283 +/- 56 s, P = 0.98). There were no clinically significant bleeding events, serious adverse events, or discontinuations of the study drug. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with clopidogrel 75 mg, prasugrel 10 mg and 20 mg daily for 10 days resulted in more rapid, more consistent, and higher levels of platelet inhibition.     

Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety and tolerability of multiple ascending doses of ticagrelor in healthy volunteers

AIM

To determine the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety and tolerability of multiple oral doses of ticagrelor, a P2Y₁₂ receptor antagonist, in healthy volunteers.

METHODS

This was a randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled, ascending dose study. Thirty-two subjects received ticagrelor 50–600 mg once daily or 50–300 mg twice daily or placebo for 5 days at three dose levels in two parallel groups. Another group of 16 subjects received a clopidogrel 300 mg loading dose then 75 mg day⁻¹, or placebo for 14 days.

RESULTS

Ticagrelor was absorbed with median t_max 1.5–3 h, exhibiting predictable pharmacokinetics over the 50–600 mg dose range. Mean C_max and AUC for ticagrelor and its main metabolite, AR-C124910XX, increased approximately dose-proportionately (approximately 2.2- to 2.4-fold with a twofold dose increase) over the dose range. Inhibition of platelet aggregation (IPA) with ticagrelor was greater and better sustained at high levels with ticagrelor twice daily vs. once daily regimens. Throughout dosing, more consistent IPA was observed at doses ≥300 mg once daily and ≥100 mg twice daily compared with clopidogrel. Mean IPA with ticagrelor ≥100 mg twice daily was greater and less variable (93–100%, range 65–100%) than with clopidogrel (77%, range 11–100%) at trough concentrations. No safety or tolerability issues were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple dosing provided predictable pharmacokinetics of ticagrelor and its metabolite over the dose range of 50–600 mg once daily and 50–300 mg twice daily with C_max and AUC(0,t) increasing approximately dose-proportionally. Greater and more consistent IPA with ticagrelor at doses ≥100 mg twice daily and ≥300 mg once daily were observed than with clopidogrel. Ticagrelor at doses up to 600 mg day⁻¹ was well tolerated.     

Evaluating current and emerging antithrombotic therapy currently available for the treatment of acute coronary syndrome in geriatric populations

Introduction: Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) represent one of the most perilous presentations of ischemic heart disease. Temporal trends clearly demonstrate that ACS occur later and later in life. Elderly patients with ACS comprise a populous and growing group, with more than half of individuals presenting with myocardial infarction being 75 years or older. Nevertheless, geriatric patients are greatly underrepresented in the landmark ACS trials evaluating innovative pharmacological strategies.

Areas covered: The authors critically summarize recently published research on contemporary and emerging antithrombotic therapy for the treatment of ACS in geriatric patients.

Expert opinion: Elderly ACS patients are characterized by simultaneously increased risk of cardiovascular events and bleeding. Very few studies assessing the efficacy and safety of novel ACS pharmacotherapy in geriatric patients are currently available. Guidelines on the treatment of ACS are based on the overall results of major randomized clinical trials (RCTs), and data supporting the recommended therapy in elderly mainly derive from subanalyses of these RCTs. Properly designed and powered RCTs are necessary to properly evaluate the net effect of current and emerging pharmacotherapy in geriatric patients. Until such data are available, elderly ACS patients should receive treatment according to the general recommendations.     

胰高血糖素样肽-1受体激动剂与钠-葡萄糖协同转运蛋白-2抑制剂治疗2型糖尿病疗效及安全性的系统评价

目的：系统评价胰高血糖素样肽-1受体激动剂（GLP-1RA）与钠-葡萄糖协同转运蛋白-2抑制剂（SGLT-2i）治疗2型糖尿病（T2DM）的疗效及安全性,为临床治疗提供循证参考。方法：计算机检索相关的随机对照试验。采用Stata 14.0软件进行Meta分析,并运用成本-效果分析方法进行短期经济学评价。结果：共纳入6项RCT,合计2 248例患者,纳入药物包括利拉鲁肽、艾塞那肽、司美格鲁肽、卡格列净、达格列净和恩格列净。Meta分析结果显示：GLP-1RA能更有效地降低糖化血红蛋白（HbA1c）水平[SMD=-0.28,95% CI （-0.40,-0.16）,P<0.01],且HbA1c<7%的达标率更高,而SGLT-2i能更有效地控制患者的收缩压、舒张压和脉搏;GLP-1RA治疗组导致停药、腹泻、恶心、呕吐等不良反应的发生率均显著高于SGLT-2i治疗组,而SGLT-2i治疗组患者出现生殖器感染的发生率更高,差异均有统计学意义。SGLT-2i的成本-效果比更低。结论：GLP-1RA降低T2DM患者HbA1c水平的疗效更好,但SGLT-2i控制患者血压和脉搏的效果更优、耐受性更佳且具有较高的经济学优势,临床治疗中应根据患者的具体情况选择合适的药物。     

Efficacy and safety of a needle-free injector in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated with basal insulin: a multicentre,prospective, randomised,crossover study

ABSTRACT

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of a needle-free injector in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated with basal insulin.

Methods: 62 patients with type 2 diabetes were enrolled in a multicenter, randomised, prospective, open-label, crossover study. All patients received subcutaneous insulin glargine administered by a needle-free injector or a glargine pen for 7 ~ 14 days, and were then crossed over after wash out.

Results: Patients in the insulin needle-free injector (NFI) and glargine pen (GP) groups achieved similar fasting blood glucose control . However, the dosage of insulin required to achieve the target FBG level in the NFI group was lower than in the GP group (16.14 ± 5.13 U/day vs 19.25 ± 6.20 U/day, respectively; p = 0.0046). This difference was more significant in patients who received higher insulin dosages compared with those receiving lower dosages. Use of the needle-free injector was also associated with significantly less pain (p < 0.001) and less fear of injection (p < 0.001) than glargine pens.

Conclusion: The use of a needle-free injector can significantly lower the dosage of insulin required to achieve good glycemic control and reduce topical adverse reactions and the fear of injections as well, which help to improve patient compliance.

Clinical Trial Registration Number KY20172077-1; NCT03420040