Mood disorders in children and adolescents

A review of the literature on depression and mood disorders in children and adolescents reveals a rapidly expanding and controversial field of study. The author highlights current understanding as well as disputed issues in three areas: children's responses to separation and loss, depressive disorders in children and adolescents, and bipolar disorders in childhood and youth. He suggests that a psychodynamic-developmental perspective offers the optimal approach to a more complete understanding of these disorders.     

Mood disorders in children and adolescents: an epidemiologic perspective.

Epidemiologic studies show that major depression is comparatively rare among children, but common among adolescents, with up to a 25% lifetime prevalence by the end of adolescence. Mania is much less common, with no more than a 2% lifetime prevalence by the end of adolescence. Developmental studies that include assessments of both hormonal changes and social changes through the pubertal transition are needed to investigate joint biological and environmental influences on the emergence of the gender difference in depression in puberty. Although subthreshold mood disorder symptoms are common, controversy exists about their clinical significance. This controversy is made more complex by methodologic uncertainties regarding inconsistent symptom reports obtained from parents, teachers, and children and by the pervasive existence of comorbidity. Retrospective reports about age of onset in adult studies suggest that at least 50% of youngsters with major depression and 90% of those with mania continue to have adult recurrences. These recurrences are mediated by adverse role transitions, such as truncated educational attainment and teenage childbearing, that typically occur before the time of initial treatment. Aggressive outreach and early treatment aimed at preventing the occurrence of adverse role effects might help decrease the persistence of child and adolescent mood disorders. Long-term follow-up studies are needed to resolve current uncertainties regarding nosology, methodology, and long-term treatment effects. Innovative epidemiologic research designs aimed at more quickly providing provisional information are also needed to advance understanding of long-term developmental processes.     

Mood symptoms in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders

Asperger Syndrome (AS) and High Functioning Autism (HFA) are psychiatric conditions belonging to the Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASDs), characterized by social dysfunction and focused interest, in the absence of mental retardation. Previous reports suggest that AS/HFA may be associated with important psychiatric comorbidities. Among the psychiatric internalizing disorders, depression and anxiety are probably the most common disorders. The aim of this study is to evaluate the prevalence of mood disorders and identifying peculiar clinical features in subjects suffering from AS and HFA. 30 male patients with AS/HFA, 30 male patients affected by Major Depression (MD) and 35 male Typically Developing (TD) comparison were assessed with the CDI and the CDRS-R. Participants’ parents were invited to complete the CBCL and the P-YMRS. Moreover, the CGAS was rated by the clinicians. The evaluation of depressive symptoms showed that AS/HFA group reported higher depressive symptoms, as showed by CDI total, CBCL internalizing and CDRS-R total, compared to the TD group. No significant difference of depressive symptoms was found between the AS/HFA and the MD group, with the exception of CDRS-R total score. Moreover, linear regression analysis in the AS/HFA group between CGAS and depressive symptoms revealed that a higher level of depressive symptoms increased the risk of poorer global functioning. These results suggest that the depressive symptoms in AS/HFA patients may be associated with poorer global functioning, with a consequent impairment in their psychological profile and social adjustment, and should alert clinicians to the importance of assessing mood disorders in order to choose the appropriate treatment.     

Mood stabilizers in children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE: The efficacy of mood stabilizers in children and adolescents has not been studied adequately. This article will review existing studies and highlight some important issues in designing future studies on these agents. METHOD: Electronic databases including Medline, Psycholnfo, and CRISP were searched for data in children receiving compounds that have mood-stabilizing properties in adults. RESULTS: Some open clinical data and an extremely modest amount of controlled research data suggest lithium, carbamazepine, and valproate may be effective mood stabilizers in children and adolescents. There are no controlled data on other potential mood stabilizers in children. CONCLUSIONS: The disorders that may be responsive to mood stabilizers are among the most morbid in child psychiatry. More studies are needed to clarify the efficacy of these compounds in children and adolescents and to provide a rational basis for choosing among them.     

The treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents.

Anxiety disorders are the most common psychiatric conditions in the pediatric population, with prevalence estimates ranging from 5-18%. Children and adolescents with excessive anxiety often meet diagnostic criteria for a number of disorders within the DSM-IV. Unfortunately, the current diagnostic system is controversial because of high rates of symptom overlap, comorbidity with other psychiatric disorders, and lack of biological markers that would support a more empirical anxiety nosology. Treatment strategies for pediatric anxiety disorders have important historical roots. Several controlled studies of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) demonstrate efficacy for pediatric anxiety disorders. In contrast, no controlled psychopharmacology studies have demonstrated efficacy in children and adolescents with anxiety disorders, except obsessive-compulsive disorder; however, several large, methodologically sound psychopharmacotherapy trials are underway for pediatric anxiety disorders. This update will review the current status of psychosocial and psychopharmacologic treatment of pediatric anxiety disorders. In addition, a brief discussion of nosology, epidemiology, and developmental course of anxiety is included. Preliminary psychopharmacology treatment and CBT treatment algorithms are presented for pediatric anxiety disorders, based on the best available data. Recommendations for future research directions are also discussed.     

Psychophysiologic disorders in children and adolescents.

Psychosomatic disorders in children and and adolescents is a topic that covers a wide variety of illnesses and one which is difficult if not impossible to define accurately. In general, chronic emotional states, often nonspecific, serve as strong contributors to the development of a physical illness. The particular illness is often dictated by varying degrees of biological predisposition in one physiological system-i.e., such a predisposition in the respiratory system may lead to asthma or in the gastrointestinal system to ulcerative colitis. In some cases the biological factor is large and the emotional factor minimal, while in other cases the reverse is true. In the early days of research in psychosomatic disorders it was widely believed that each disorder was accompanied by certain specific emotional problems. Further study has shown this is not true. It was also felt that many, if not most of these disorders could be cured by psychotherapy, and this also has proven to be a fallacy. we have moved more and more to the team approach. Since both psyche and soma are involved, more than one specialist is usually required. In children and adolescents this may involve a child psychiatrist, a pediatrician, an allergist or gastroenterologist, a social worker and a psychologist. It requires time and patience to form an effective and smoothly functioning team in which all members respect one another's potential contribution. Some examples of team operation are presented and some of the problems outlined. In addition, there is attention given to the special problems of the adolescent and also the child with chronic nonspecific physical complaints as well as the child who requires hospitalization.     

Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: clinical and related issues in pharmacological treatment.

Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents are receiving more attention from clinicians and researchers. Psychopharmacological approaches to controlling symptoms of anxiety are possible as part of a multi-model treatment approach. This paper provides an overview of some recent findings in child and adolescent anxiety disorders that may influence treatment decisions. It also reviews studies of the use of benzodiazepines and tricyclic antidepressants in treating children and adolescents who suffer from anxiety disorders, and suggests methods of integrating pharmacological treatment with other modalities in these disorders.     

Evidence-based treatment for mental disorders in children and adolescents

In the past decade, increased emphasis has been placed on identifying treatments for childhood disorders that are supported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. This process was spearheaded by an American Psychological Association division 12 task force that identified evidence-based Treatments—mostly for disorders of adulthood. Because of the publication of the task force results, other studies have been published that contribute to the knowledge base of evidence-based treatment, and these studies are briefly reviewed. Across evidence-based treatments, common features of effective treatments, such as parent involvement, use of a treatment manual, and the emphasis on generalization of treatment effects to natural settings, are also identified and reviewed Introduction     

Behavioural treatment of somatic disorders in children and adolescents

During the past decade the field of behavioural medicine has developed rapidly and several somatic disorders in adults have been successfully treated. By contrast, the effects of behavioural interventions of somatic disorders in paediatric populations have been examined less extensively in controlled outcome research. The present review concerns the promising development and application of behavioural methods in the treatment of various somatic disorders in children and adolescents. The studies reviewed were required to be conducted on an individual or group basis and, in addition, to employ quasi-experimental or experimental designs. It is concluded that of psychological treatments, primarily behavioural approaches have proven to be effective for childhood disorders such as obesity, nocturnal enuresis and recurrent headaches. Further, in the treatment of recurrent abdominal pain and asthma in children, behavioural approaches have shown promising outcomes. This progress should alert the clinician and personnel in health care facilities to the contributions of behavioural paediatrics so that behavioural treatment methods may be utilized where appropriate.     

Pharmacologic treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents

This article reviews the pharmacologic treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. These disorders are quite common and can be considered a "silent epidemic" because they are more often reported by the children and adolescents than by their parents. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), benzodiazepines, buspirone, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been used to treat anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with varying degrees of success. Considering safety and efficacy, the SSRIs appear to be the first-line treatment for anxiety disorders in youth, but more studies are needed to confirm preliminary results. Tricyclic antidepressants and benzodiazepines may be considered when the child has not responded to SSRIs or when adverse effects have exceeded benefits. Although nonpharmacologic approaches for the treatment of anxiety in children and adolescents are beyond the scope of this article, their importance is to be underscored and they should be considered as part of the treatment plan. Over the next decade, research data will be generated regarding the treatment of anxiety disorders in youth. Ongoing research studies include the use of fluoxetine (B. Birmaher, personal communication, 1999) and fluvoxamine (J. Walkup, personal communication, 1999) for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, or social phobia; and buspirone for generalized anxiety disorder in children. Despite these efforts, there is a need for more studies to examine the safety and efficacy of different pharmacologic treatments, as well as longitudinal studies to monitor for long-term tolerability and side effects. Pharmacokinetic studies for children and adolescents will provide information on the metabolism and absorption of these medications and delineate the developmental differences between children and adolescents when compared to adults. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, studies that compare medication, psychosocial treatments, and their combination are needed.     

Mood disorders in multiple sclerosis: diagnosis and treatment

Emotional disturbances are common in MS and consist of disturbances of mood and disturbances of affect. The important mood disorders are major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. Their relationship to MS is multi-factorial and complex, and the extent to which they are direct consequences of the disease process or psychological reactions to it remains unclear. Whatever their cause, however, the symptoms of mood disorders in people with MS are no different from the symptoms of mood disorders in people without MS, and respond just as well to standard treatments. The disorders of affect are euphoria, pathological laughing and weeping, and other frontal lobe syndromes. These disorders result from demyelination, are some of the most characteristic symptoms of MS, and have the same implications for treatment as do other aspects of the disease. Mood and affective disturbances can cause enormous pain and suffering and lead to significant disruption of family, work, and social life. Physicians who can identify, diagnose, treat, and manage mood and affective disturbances effectively and who can help their patients and family members acknowledge these difficulties, talk about them, and accept psychiatric consultation and treatment can have a dramatic impact on the quality of their lives. This paper outlines the symptoms and diagnostic criteria for mood disorders and affective disturbances, reviews current treatment options, summarizes data from epidemiologic and pathophysiological studies, and suggests areas for future research.     

Mood lability and bipolar disorder in children and adolescents

Pediatric bipolar disorder, once considered rare, has reportedly increased in incidence over the past 10 years. There is significant debate about the phenomenology, diagnosis and treatment of this illness. The diagnostic assessment of children with severe mood and behavioural disturbance is of considerable public health importance as the ultimate diagnosis can have significant treatment implications and can impact the level of stigma experienced by children and their families. The purposes of this paper are to: 1) review current issues in the phenomenology and diagnostic assessment of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents; 2) review recent research suggesting that youths with a chronic course of illness should be considered a separate group from those with an episodic course; and 3) offer suggestions for future studies to address the various phenomenological controversies.     

Predictors of response to treatment in children and adolescents with mood disorders.

Depression and bipolar disorder are frequently chronic disorders, with onset often beginning in childhood. Mood disorders are becoming more recognized in children and adolescents, and treatment of these disorders has received much attention, particularly in the past 10 years. Recent studies have demonstrated efficacy of antidepressant medications (particularly SSRIs) and specific psychotherapies (primarily CBT). Rates of remission (little or no symptoms) in these studies, however, have remained quite low (35% to 40% in most acute studies). Furthermore, recurrence is common in this population, and affects 40% to 50%. Early onset mood disorders are also associated with increased risk of developing other psychiatric disorders, substance abuse, and suicide, and having poor academic, work, and social functioning. The lifelong implications are serious. Identifying factors that may predict response to treatment, both in general and to specific treatments, may lead to improved outcomes for these patients. Unfortunately, studies have typically been inconsistent. Most studies do not identify demographic variables as predictive of outcome, although older age has been associated with poor prognosis in several studies. Psychosocial factors have yielded some results, particularly with regard to family environments. Generally, intact families with positive interaction styles and less dysfunction have been associated with better outcomes. Psychiatric disorders among parents not only predicts the development of the disorder, but is also associated with poorer prognosis. Finally, several clinical factors have been linked to poorer outcome in children and adolescents with mood disorders. More frequent episodes, increased severity (particularly suicidality and psychosis), and comorbid disorders are likely to lead to fewer recoveries, longer episodes, and increased rate of recurrence. Recent attention has focused on mediators and moderators of outcomes to treatment. In general, the theory is that enumerable factors contribute to the course of an individual's mood disorder, but that by identifying some of the variables that have more impact may allow for more specific or modified treatments to improve outcome. Many of the predictive factors explored in this article are examples of mediators and moderators that affect outcome. Each one alone may not provide definitive answers for predicting response to treatment, but each must be taken into account at the outset of treatment. It is clear that treatments must be individualized for each patient. Furthermore, selecting only one treatment exclusively for patients may hinder progress. The first step is to attempt to identify some of the underlying causes and the consequences of the disorder itself (i.e., decreased social interaction). The next step in successful treatment is to address both the causes and consequences of the disorder, through medication, psychotherapy, skills training, family intervention, or any other methods needed to assist the child to begin functioning better in all domains (social, academic, work, family, and so forth). Such a biopsychosocial approach to treatment of these disorders will likely improve overall outcome.     

Mood lability and bipolar disorder in children and adolescents

Pediatric bipolar disorder, once considered rare, has reportedly increased in incidence over the past 10 years. There is significant debate about the phenomenology, diagnosis and treatment of this illness. The diagnostic assessment of children with severe mood and behavioural disturbance is of considerable public health importance as the ultimate diagnosis can have significant treatment implications and can impact the level of stigma experienced by children and their families. The purposes of this paper are to: 1) review current issues in the phenomenology and diagnostic assessment of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents; 2) review recent research suggesting that youths with a chronic course of illness should be considered a separate group from those with an episodic course; and 3) offer suggestions for future studies to address the various phenomenological controversies.     

Home treatment for children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders

The study examines the effectiveness of home treatment in 70 children and adolescents (aged 6-17 years) with heterogeneous psychiatric disorders. Home treatment was offered to parents/children as an alternative to inpatient treatment (no randomized group assignment). Interventions were carried out by psychiatric nurses (n = 38) and medical students (n = 32) under the supervision of experienced child psychiatrists. Assessment of treatment effects was based on a structured parent interview and parents', children's and therapists' ratings of various aspects of psychosocial functioning. Pre- or post-treatment comparisons indicate significant improvement of psychiatric symptoms, severity of the disorder, and psychosocial adjustment after three months of home-based interventions. Outcome of behavioral interventions carried out by experienced nurses was superior, compared to treatment effects achieved by advanced medical students. Post-treatment comparison of home-based (n = 70) and inpatient-based (n = 35) treatment effects suggests that inpatient treatment all in all was more effective. At one-year follow-up, however, the effects of home treatment were maintained in a higher number of patients, compared to the stability of effects seen after psychiatric hospitalization. Thus, home treatment appears to be an effective treatment setting. Motivation and compliance of patient and parents, and high skills of the therapists are key ingredients for the success of a home-based treatment program.