术后恢复质量评估量表评价术后认知功能的研究

目的探讨术后恢复质量评估(PQRS)量表新认知评价体系对术后认知功能评估的影响。方法选择ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,年龄≥18岁择期行全麻手术患者369例,于术前1d、术后1d、3d及7d分别采用PQRS量表新旧认知评价体系评估认知功能。术后7d内任意时点出现术后认知功能障碍(POCD)者分为POCD组。记录患者一般情况、术前合并症及手术类型,将组间差异有统计学意义的因素进行多因素Logistic回归分析。结果新旧体系下术后1d、3d及7dPOCD发生率分别为14.36%、10.57%、8.40%和36.04%、27.91%、23.04%。新认知评价体系下POCD发生率在术后1d、3d及7d均明显低于旧认知评价体系(P<0.01)。与非POCD组比较,POCD组术前合并高血压患者比例、ASA分级、躁动发生率明显增高,受教育程度明显降低,年龄明显增大,麻醉时间明显延长(P<0.05或P<0.01)。Logistic回归分析结果显示年龄≥60岁、苏醒期躁动以及麻醉时间≥120min为POCD危险因素。结论 PQRS量表新认知评价体系下术后早期POCD发生率显著下降,但年龄、苏醒期躁动以及较长的麻醉时间仍是POCD的重要危险因素。     

全麻老年患者术后认知功能障碍的危险因素

目的 筛选全麻老年患者术后认知功能障碍(POCD)的危险因素.方法 择期全麻下行胸部或腹部手术的老年患者300例,年龄65～80岁,采用全凭静脉麻醉.根据术后3d是否发生认知功能障碍,将患者分为非POCD组和POCD组.记录患者一般资料及术前空腹血糖、糖化血红蛋白、血脂及血压.将组间差异有统计学意义的因素进行logistic回归分析,筛选POCD的危险因素.结果 98例患者发生POCD,发生率为32.7％.logistic回归分析结果显示:高龄、糖尿病和高血压是POCD的独立危险因素(P＜0.05).结论 高龄、糖尿病和高血压是全麻老年患者POCD的独立危险因素.     

老年患者术后认知功能障碍的危险因素

目的 筛选老年患者发生术后认知功能障碍(POCD)的危险因素.方法 择期手术患者240例,ASA Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,年龄65～86岁,根据麻醉方法不同分为3组(n=80):全身麻醉组(G组)、硬膜外阻滞组(E组)和局部麻醉组(L组).分别于术前1 d、术后1、3、5 d记录MMSE评分,计算术前MMSE评分的标准差,每例患者术后MMSE评分与术前MMSE评分比较≥1个标准差时即发生POCD.将不同年龄、性别、文化程度、麻醉方法、手术时间和术前MMSE评分的老年患者POCD发生率进行比较,若差异有统计学意义,该因素进入非条件logistic回归模型,筛选老年患者发生POCD的危险因素.结果 性别、文化程度、麻醉类型、手术时间≥90 min及术前MMSE评分＜23分不是老年患者POCD发生的危险因素;年龄≥75岁与老年患者POCD的发生有关(P＜0.05).结论 年龄≥75岁是老年患者发生POCD的危险因素.     

脊柱手术患者术后谵妄和术后认知功能障碍的危险因素

目的 筛选脊柱手术患者术后谵妄(POD)和术后认知功能障碍(POCD)的危险因素.方法 择期全麻下行脊柱手术的患者120例,性别不限,年龄50～76岁.根据术后2d是否发生POD,将患者分为非POD组和POD组,根据术后3d是否发生POCD,将患者分为非POCD组和POCD组.术前1d分别采用Stroop色词测验和Beck抑郁自评量表评估执行功能和抑郁状态,记录年龄、性别、受教育程度、每周饮酒量、精神病史、ASA分级和Charlson合并症指数、麻醉方法和术中抗胆碱能药物使用情况、术后1d时VAS评分,将组间差异有统计学意义的因素进行多因素logistic回归分析,筛选POD和POCD的危险因素.结果 11例患者发生POD,发生率9.2％;30例患者发生POCD,发生率25.0％.logistic同归分析结果显示:Stroop评分低、Beck抑郁评分高、Charlson合并症指数高和精神病史是POD的危险因素;Stroop评分低、Beck抑郁评分高、Charlson合并症指数高和每周饮酒量多是POCD的危险因素(p＜0.05或0.01).结论 术前执行功能降低、抑郁状态和合并症多是脊柱手术患者POD和POCD共同的危险因素,精神病史是POD的危险因素,饮酒量多是POCD的危险因素.     

全麻腰椎手术老年患者POCD的危险因素及预测模型

目的筛选全麻腰椎手术老年患者术后认知功能障碍(POCD)的危险因素, 并建立预测模型。方法纳入2021年7月至2022年7月于本院择期行全麻下腰椎手术的老年患者, 术后7 d采用MMSE和MoCA评估认知功能, 2个量表评分均满足下降≥1标准差为发生POCD, 根据是否发生POCD分为POCD组和非POCD组。采用倾向性评分匹配消除组间混杂偏倚, 采用多因素logistic回归分析筛选POCD的危险因素;构建预测模型, 绘制列线图进行可视化, 采用受试者工作特征曲线、校准曲线、决策分析曲线分别对模型的区分度、一致性及临床有效性进行评价。结果本研究共纳入159例患者, POCD发生率31.4%。匹配后2组(n=32)术中输血比率、累积低血压时间、总输液量、手术时间差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。多因素logistic回归分析结果显示, 高龄、受教育年限、糖尿病、既往2次及以上全麻手术史、APTT、累积低血压时间是老年患者全麻腰椎手术发生POCD的独立危险因素(P<0.05)。根据上述危险因素构建模型式:LogitP= -15.878+0.263×年龄(岁)-0.122×受教...     

老年患者肠癌切除术后早期认知功能障碍的危险因素

目的 筛选老年患者肠癌切除术后早期认知功能障碍(POCD)的危险因素.方法 择期拟行肠癌切除术老年患者120例,年龄≥65岁,性别不限,ASA分级Ⅱ或Ⅲ级.根据患者术后第7天是否发生POCD,将其分为POCD组和非POCD组.记录患者年龄、体重、性别、受教育程度、肿瘤部位、TNM分期、合并疾病、术前中医证型、术前ld、术后l、3、7d的MMSE评分、麻醉时间、苏醒时间、术中出血量及出现低血压次数.采用logistic回归分析法筛选POCD的危险因素.结果 术后35例患者发生POCD,发生率为29.2％.Logistic回归分析结果显示:年龄、受教育程度、肿瘤部位及术中出现低血压次数为老年患者肠癌切除术后发生POCD的危险因素(P＜0.05).结论 年龄、受教育程度、肿瘤部位和术中出现低血压次数是老年患者肠癌切除术后早期发生POCD的危险因素.     

全麻术后认知功能障碍的相关因素分析

【摘要】 目的 分析气管插管全麻术后认知功能障碍(POCD)的相关因素。方法〓选取择期非心脏手术全麻病人267例,于术前1天、术后1天、术后3天采用MMSE量表进行认知功能评定,术后发生认知功能障碍的患者为PD组,未发生认知功能障碍的患者为NPD组。同时记录年龄,性别,文化程度,ASA分级,既往史,心电图,肝功能,术前用药,术中用药,手术时间,出血量,输血量,术后疼痛视觉模拟评分(VAS评分),术后心动过速、高血压等情况,进行相关因素及多元Logistic回归分析。结果〓POCD与年龄,ASA分级,吸烟史,东莨菪碱,阿托品,手术时间,输血,出血量,术中低血压,术后高血压,术后VAS评分差异等因素有关,通过Logistic回归分析结果年龄,手术时长,低血压及VAS评分是POCD的危险因素。结论〓年龄,手术时长,低血压及VAS评分是POCD的危险因素。     

少年儿童非心脏手术术后认知功能障碍发生率调查及危险因素分析

目的 研究少年儿童非心脏手术术后认知功能障碍(postoperative cognitive dysfunction,POCD)的发生率,并分析其相关危险因素. 方法 采用简单随机化法选择择期非心脏手术4岁～16岁患者110例作手术组,同年龄段健康受试者50例作对照组.记录出生方式、受教育程度、既往手术史及术后并发症;术后1 d～3d随访并发症情况.两组受试者分别于术前1d、术后3d采用“韦氏幼儿智力量表”或“韦氏儿童智力量表修订版”进行神经心理学测试.按Z计分法计算POCD的发生率.采用多因素Logistic回归分析POCD的危险因素. 结果 手术组100例,对照组43例完成研究.手术组术后3 d POCD的发生率是15.0％,对照组为2.3％,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);Logistic回归分析结果显示:既往麻醉手术史与术后感染为少年儿童非心脏手术后POCD的独立危险因素(P＜0.05). 结论 少年儿童非心脏手术后POCD发生率为15.0％,既往麻醉手术史与术后感染是发生POCD的独立危险因素.     

非心脏手术患者术前焦虑和抑郁状态与术后神经认知功能恢复延迟的相关性

目的分析全麻患者术前焦虑和抑郁状态与术后神经认知功能恢复延迟(DNR)的相关性。方法选择2018年11月至2020年6月择期行全麻非心脏手术患者436例,男231例,女205例,年龄50～80岁,BMI 19～33 kg/m~2,ASAⅠ—Ⅲ级。术前分别采用焦虑自评量表(SAS)和抑郁自评量表(SDS)评估焦虑和抑郁状态。分别于术前1 d、术后30 d对患者进行神经心理学测试,采用Z分法来判定术后是否发生DNR。根据是否发生DNR将患者分为两组:DNR组(n=44)和无DNR组(nDNR组,n=392)。记录患者性别、年龄、受教育程度、术前合并症等,采用单因素和多因素logistic回归分析,采用Spearman相关分析不同焦虑、抑郁程度与术后DNR的相关性。结果术前焦虑和抑郁状态的发生率分别为58.4%和43.2%。术后DNR的发生率为10.2%。Logistic回归分析显示,术后DNR的危险因素包括年龄增加(OR=2.651,95%CI 1.586～5.756)、术前抑郁(OR=1.687,95%CI 1.144～2.659)和麻醉时间延长(OR=1.231,95%CI 1.100～2.213)。结论全麻患者术前抑郁状态是术后30 d发生术后神经认知功能恢复延迟的独立危险因素,与术后神经认知功能恢复延迟明显正相关。     

非心脏大手术老年患者术后认知功能障碍与术中脑氧代谢的关系

目的 探讨非心脏大手术老年患者术后认知功能的改变及与术中脑氧代谢的关系.方法 择期非心脏大手术老年患者64例,年龄65～85岁,于术前2～3 d和术后第7天时,分别由心理医师进行一次神经心理测验.在单项测验中术前与术后分值之差≥1个术前分值标准差定为认知功能受损,一个患者在2项或2项以上测验中出现认知功能受损则定为认知功能障碍.于麻醉诱导后即刻、2 h、离开麻醉恢复室时分别同步采集桡动脉和颈内静脉球部血样进行血气分析,计算脑血流量/脑氧代谢率比值(CBF/CMRO2＞20为异常).结果 61例患者完成术后神经心理测验,有10例(16.4%)发生术后认知功能障碍(POCD).logistic回归分析显示麻醉诱导后2h时CBF/CMRO2的异常与POCD发生有关.结论 非心脏手术老年患者术后POCD的发生与术中脑氧代谢异常有关.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.