Reduction of stereotypic body contortions using physical restraint and dro

A 9-yr-old mentally retarded female displaying high rate stereotypic body contortions of longstanding duration was treated using physical restraint and differential reinforcement of other behavior in her classroom setting. Following the collection of 2 school days of baseline data, the therapist began intensive treatment of the child in the classroom using these techniques. After 2 days of intervention, the child's teacher employed all subsequent treatment procedures for 8 school days in which eight non-treatment periods occurred. Results indicated that the treatment package was succesful in producing immediate and substantial reductions in this moderately self-injurious stereotypy at school. Eventually, rate of responding reached a zero level. Although some generalization of treatment effects to the no-treatment periods in school was noted, no systematic, enduring changes in rate of responding at home were observed. The results suggested the treatment package was easily learned and effectively employed by a teacher with no previous experience with behavior modification.     

A “ticket” system for reducing ward rules violations on a token economy program

The present study explored the effectiveness of a “violation ticket” feedback procedure as a means of reducing minor ward rules violations on a token economy ward. Nursing assistants identified 16 frequently-occurring maladaptive behaviors shown by patients on the ward and attached a small token fine to each behavior. Whenever an infraction occured, the patient was given a ticket detailing the offense, the fine, and the date and time of the offense. The fines were subtracted from the 15-token reward that every patient routinely received daily, and patients who had more than 15 tokens' worth of infractions had to pay additional tokens to make up the difference. The average weekly fine per patient dropped from 20·8 to 5·5 tokens in 8 weeks and significant differences (P < 0·01) between patients' pre- and post-experimental adherence to ward rules were found. The results are discussed in terms of the utility of providing consistent feedback to patients in a behavior modification program.     

Locus of control as related to effectiveness in a behavior modification program for juvenile delinquents

A fixed token economy and a flexible behavioral contracting system were employed in a treatment program for juvenile delinquents. Locus of control, a person variable, was also measured and its relationship to program effectiveness assessed. Results indicated that internally-oriented delinquents committed fewer offenses and evidenced lower recidivism rates than did externally-oriented delinquents. Results were discussed within a social learning framework for the treatment of juvenile delinquents.     

The failure of some patients to respond to token programs

The increasing use of token economies has been warranted by its impressive results in altering a wide range of behaviors with diverse treatment populations. However, a close examination of the literature reveals a relatively consistent percentage of treatment failures. Evidence is reviewed which demonstrates that the failure of some patients to respond to the token economy has laboratory precedents. Possible explanations for unresponsiveness of patients to token reinforcement are entertained. The implications for the operant paradigm represented by these failures are discussed. Finally, several solutions are suggested to decrease the number of patients who fail to respond.     

Differential effects of task memory demand on haptic matching of shape by blind and sighted humans

The role of prior perceptual experience in retention of haptic information was studied, comparing blind and sighted individuals in a matching task that systematically varied task memory demand. The results indicated that whereas greater memory demand reduced retention for both groups of Ss, the blind showed better retention under such memory demand than did the sighted. The outcome was interpreted in light of the effects of prior experience in gathering information by hand, on the way the stimulus is explored, and the way it is coded.     

Treating insomnia with relaxation and desensitization in a group setting by an automated approach

Insomniac Ss averaging sleep onset times of 65 min were exposed to group relaxation or group desensitization treatments via automated tape recorded directions for a 4-week period. Both experimental groups exhibited significant improvement (p<0·005) while two control groups (poor sleepers and normal sleepers) showed no changes. Desensitization treatment was also associated with changes in five personality factors of Cattell's 16 PF in the direction of greater emotional self-confidence. Follow-up data 12 months later showed significant retention of short-term gains for both groups. Clinically, it appears feasible to make use of both techniques by a group automated approach as safe alternatives to drugs and electro-sleep methods, which in the past have been frequently associated with undesirable side effects.     

Cue-controlled relaxation in in vivo desensitization of a snake phobia

A 21-yr-old female student who experienced an intense fear of snakes was successfully treated by using cue controlled relaxation for in vivo desensitization. By the end of a 15-week treatment program she was able to touch and hold snakes.     

Use of a peer model in language training in an echolalic child

A 10-yr-old girl, carrying the diagnostic label of childhood autism, was trained to speak at a normal voice volume and acquired a labeling vocabulary, via an imitation learning paradigm which utilized a peer model. Results indicate that the modeling paradigm facilitated both volume training and label acquisition.     

Can expectancy explain reaction time ear asymmetries?

Subjects were presented with dichotic pairs of musical and speech sounds randomly intermixed and the task was to press quickly a response button whenever a pre-specified target sound was detected at either ear. Reaction times were faster to right- than to left-ear speech targets; there was also a trend favoring the left ear in detection of musical targets. Since subjects did not know in advance of each trial whether the dichotic pair would consist of music or speech, the significant interaction between stimulus types and ears suggests that an attentional explanation based on expectancy cannot fully explain ear asymmetries.     

Self-control of chronic fingernail biting

Volunteer chronic fingernail biters participated in a behavioral self-control program that employed self-monitoring, self-punishment, and self-reward techniques. Gains in nail length and improved cosmetic appearance persisted through a follow-up evaluation. Although the comprehensive self-control program appears to be highly effective, the relative efficacy of individual treatment components was not clearly established.     

The treatment of temporomandibular joint syndrome through control of anxiety

Following a negative experience with general anesthesia, a 20-yr-old woman developed anxiety and an inability to relax concomitant with temporomandibular joint dysfunction and pain syndrome. Systematic countering of anxiety by relaxation successfully removed her anxiety and led to a complete resolution of her symptoms. Follow-up at 16 months indicated maintenance of treatment gains and no recurrence of the symptoms during the previous 12 months.     

Conditioning prosocial behaviors in a mentally retarded child without using instructions

This case study involves operant conditioning behavior in a mentally retarded child. Basically, physical reinforcers (M & M candies) were used to increase prosocial behaviors in a hyperactive, mentally retarded 3-yr-old girl. The prosocial behavior included increased attention and immobile behavior. No instructions were given the child regarding expected behavior or possible rewards for such behavior. Achieving instructionless conditioning in a young retarded child has implications for other children who have difficulty absorbing verbal instructions.     

Body image stress in neutral mask work

The development of new theories and data coming from the social and psychological sciences has dramatically changed the techniques of training professional actors within the last ten years. At the same time, there are a number of questions emanating from theatre practitioners which may be profitably addressed by the psychological specialists.The following article is based upon my years of teaching experience in movement training for actors in a professional program. Although the work was done in a non-therapeutic situation, I believe the findings are relevant to all therapists, especially creative arts therapists.     

Relatives' letter of orientation to the token economy system

Frequent reference is made in the professional literature to the necessity for relatives to be informed and involved in working with patients. Token economy programs are no different in this respect. Orientation of relatives to token economy programs is not systematic. Many institutions send an orientation letter to the family, yet no letter has been published in the professional literature to serve as a model. This article attemps to provide such a model for use by professionals in the field.     

Self control through the use of a token economy

The effects of a token economy, developed and administered by an individual for his own problem behaviors, were examined through a reversal (ABAB) design. The target behaviors, relating to the subject's academic pursuits, part-time job and personal and domestic habits, were self-evaluated as being desirable. During the initial baseline period the frequency with which the subject engaged in “reinforcing” activities as well as the subject's emittance of the “target” behaviors was self-monitored. On the basis of the baseline data, point values for behavioral achievement (earnings) and for reinforcer usage (expenditures) were established and used rather than concrete tokens to set up the economy. During the initial token application period, a shaping procedure was used for developing many of the target responses. The results indicated that the token procedure effected extensive behavioral change and suggested that individuals wishing to undergo change need not be bound to a “therapist” but can be taught how to control and change their own behavior.     

Development and evaluation of a placebo for studies of operant behavioral intervention

The role of credible placebo conditions in operant intervention research is reviewed. Three studies are presented which were designed to help develop such a placebo condition and then to evaluate its credibility. The results of the studies underscore the necessity for evaluating a placebo condition before employing it in the actual intervention study. Data are offered suggesting that a credible placebo for behavioral treatment of hyperactive children can be developed for use in teacher consultation studies. The data also suggest, however, that credibility ratings are influenced by the manner in which the evaluations are undertaken. The nature of the concept of credibility is also briefly discussed.     

The effects of a token economy program on self-care behaviors of neurologically impaired inpatients

This study examined the effectiveness of a ward-wide token economy program for improving the self-care skills of neurologically impaired patients. The three-month program focused on bed-making, putting pajamas away, dressing, shaving, and tooth-brushing. In addition, the performance of the brain damaged group was compared with that of schizophrenic subjects who participated in the same program. The performance of the twenty subjects—seven with organic brain damage and thirteen with schizophrenia—was analyzed using a least squares analysis of variance. It was found that regardless of disability, the token program was a significantly effective method of improving self-care skills on four of the five tasks.     

The token economy in day hospital settings: Contingency management or information feedback

The token economy was evaluated as a contingency management system with chronic psychiatric patients in a day hospital setting. The hospital population was considered an N of 1, and the results were evaluated in a single case experimental design. Patients' performance in the token economy remained essentially the same whether the contingencies were in effect or not. A self-report questionnaire administered in phase 3 indicated that most patients viewed points earned as indicating how well they were doing in the program as opposed to allowing them to purchase various rewards. The token economy as a feedback system in a day hospital was discussed.     

A controlled exposure technique in the elimination of exhibitionism

A novel behavioral treatment of three longstanding cases of exhibitionism is described. Treatment involved having subjects exhibit themselves at regular intervals under controlled conditions. Emphasis was placed on causing the subjects to experience the feelings of shame, guilt, and embarrassment that they typically felt after an exhibition, before an attempted exhibition. Follow-ups four years after treatment for two subjects and three years for a third, showed that none had experienced any urges to exhibit nor any actual exhibitions since termination of treatment.     

Generalized control of persistent thumbsucking by differential reinforcement of other behaviors

Thumbsucking exhibited by an 8-yr-old girl was effectively reduced in the laboratory by reinforcing thumbsucking-free intervals of increasing length with pennies (escalated DRO) while she watched television. Generalization-to-home techniques included having the mother administer the reinforcements in the lab, conduct the DRO sessions at home, and record thumbsucking rate during bedtime storytelling sessions. A DRO “spot-check” method was instated to control thumbsucking during all other times. Thumbsucking was completely eliminated, with no return of the behavior reported during any of 12 monthly follow-up calls. Discussion includes emphasis on transition of treatment from clinic to home.