A meta-analytic review of the relationship between adolescent risky sexual behavior and impulsivity across gender,age, and race

Background

Impulsivity is frequently included as a risk factor in models of adolescent sexual risk-taking; however, findings on the magnitude of association between impulsivity and risky sexual behavior are variable across studies. The aims of the current meta-analysis were to examine (1) how specific impulsivity traits relate to specific risky sexual behaviors in adolescents, and (2) how the impulsivity–risky sex relationship might differ across gender, age, and race.

Method

Eighty-one studies were meta-analyzed using a random effects model to examine the overall impulsivity–risky sex relationship and relationships among specific impulsivity traits and risky sexual behaviors.

Results

Overall, results revealed a significant, yet small, association between impulsivity and adolescent risky sexual behavior (r = 0.19, p < 0.001) that did not differ across impulsivity trait. A pattern of stronger effects was associated with risky sexual behaviors as compared to negative outcomes related to these behaviors. Gender moderated the overall relationship (β = 0.22, p = 0.04), such that effect sizes were significantly larger in samples with more females. Age, race, study design, and sample type did not moderate the relationship, although there was a pattern suggesting smaller effects for adolescents in juvenile detention settings.

Conclusions

Adolescent samples with more females showed a larger impulsivity–risky sex relationship, suggesting that impulsivity may be a more important risk factor for risky sex among adolescent females. Research and treatment should consider gender differences when investigating the role of impulsivity in adolescent sexual risk-taking.     

Pathways from harsh parenting to adolescent antisocial behavior: a multidomain test of gender moderation

We tested for gender moderation within a multidomain model of antisocial behavior (ASB) among community youth, drawn from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods study. Youths (N = 1,639) were 9 to 12 years old at baseline and were followed for two additional waves, spaced approximately 2.5 years apart. We hypothesized that harsh and physically coercive parenting, a familial level risk factor, would impact individual level risk factors for ASB, such as childhood temperament ratings of emotionality and inhibitory control, and preadolescent externalizing and internalizing symptoms, as well as involvement with antisocial peers. We further hypothesized that this process and its impact on ASB would be moderated by gender. We used both multiple indicator multiple causes and multiple group analyses to test for gender moderation and a structural equation modeling multiple mediation framework to evaluate the strength of indirect effects. We tested the role of family, individual, and peer level influences on ASB, after accounting for the role of known contextual factors, including poverty, race, and neighborhood. Our overall model fit the data well for males and females, indicating harsh parenting, disinhibition, emotionality, and peers exert a strong influence on risk for ASB. Gender moderated the pathway from harsh parenting to externalizing behavior, such that this was a significant pathway for girls, but not boys. We discussed the importance of these findings with regard to intervention planning for youth at risk for ASB and future gender-informed models of ASB.     

Does sexual coercion play a role in the high-risk sexual behavior of adolescent and young adult women?

Sexual coercion and its relationship to high-risk sexual behavior were examined in five samples of young women. Sample 1 (N=22) consisted of sexually active adolescents aged 15 to 19. Samples 2 (N=206) and 3 (N=70) were recruited from among patients at three sexually transmitted disease clinics. Sample 4 (N=51) consisted of young homeless women living on the street in a large city. Sample 5 (N=51) was recruited from among young women on a college campus. Across all samples, 44.4% of women indicated that they had been forced into some form of sexual activity against their will. Self-reports of sexually coercive experiences were consistently related to risky sexual behavior. It appears that many young women are coerced into engaging in high-risk sexual behavior. This implies the need for greater attention to male coercive sexual behavior and women's skills for coping with such behavior.Support for this paper was provided by Grant HD 26249 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and Grant MH45651 from the National Institute of Mental Health.     

Maternal depression and parenting behavior: a meta-analytic review

The results of 46 observational studies were analyzed to assess the strength of the association between depression and parenting behavior and to identify variables that moderated the effects. The association between depression and parenting was manifest most strongly for negative maternal behavior and was evident to a somewhat lesser degree in disengagement from the child. The association between depression and positive maternal behavior was relatively weak, albeit significant. Effects for negative maternal behavior were moderated by timing of the depression: Current depression was associated with the largest effects. However, residual effects of prior depression were apparent for all behaviors. Socioeconomic status, child age, and methodological variables moderated the effects for positive behavior: Effects were strongest for studies of disadvantaged women and mothers of infants. Studies using diagnostic interviews and self-report measures yielded similar effects, suggesting that deficits are not specific to depressive disorder. Research is needed to identify factors that affect the magnitude of parenting deficits among women who are experiencing depression and other psychological difficulties.     

Job stress and family social behavior: the moderating role of neuroticism

We investigated the role of neuroticism in the associations between job stress and working adults' social behavior during the first hour after work with their spouse and school-age children. Thirty dual-earner families were videotaped in their homes on two weekday afternoons and evenings. An observational coding system was developed to assess behavioral involvement and negative emotion expression. Participants also completed self-report measures of job stressors and trait neuroticism. There were few overall associations between job stress and social behavior during the first hour adults were at home with their spouse and school-age children. However, significant moderator effects indicated that linkages between work experiences and family behavior varied for men who reported different levels of trait neuroticism, which captures a dispositional tendency toward emotional instability. Among men who reported high neuroticism, job stress was linked to more active and more negative social behavior. Conversely, for men reporting low neuroticism, job stress was related to less talking and less negative emotion. These patterns were not found for the women in the study. The findings suggest that when work is stressful, men who are higher on neuroticism (i.e., less emotionally stable) may show a negative spillover effect, whereas men who are lower on neuroticism (i.e., more emotionally stable) may withdraw from social interactions.     

Testing the prenatal hormone hypothesis of tic-related disorders: gender identity and gender role behavior

The hypothesis that prenatal masculinization of the brain increases risk of tic disorders in postnatal life was tested by measuring gender and gender role behavior in 89 children and adults with a clinical diagnosis of Tourette syndrome or obsessive compulsive disorder and 67 healthy, unaffected children and adults. Consistent with this hypothesis, a tic disorder in females was associated with more gender dysphoria, increased masculine play preferences, and a more typically "masculine" pattern of performance on two sex-typed spatial tasks. Males with tic disorders reported increased masculine play preferences, and the strength of these preferences was positively associated with the severity of tic symptoms. In addition, unlike their female counterparts, males with tic disorders showed a relative impairment in mental rotation ability. These behavioral profiles are consistent with those of children who have verifiable elevations in prenatal androgen levels. These findings therefore support the hypothesis that an altered androgen-dependent process of sexual differentiation during prenatal life may contribute to the development of tic-related disorders.     

Clinical application of the gender role strain paradigm: group treatment for adolescent boys

The aim of this article is to demonstrate the clinical application of the gender role strain paradigm with a group of adolescent boys. Adolescent boys experience overwhelming pressure to adhere to gender norms. As they attempt to conform to the expectations associated with the male role, boys suffer from gender role strain. We illustrate how the protective environment of the group enables boys to engage and discuss problems with male role norms. The shift in the boys' adherence to traditional notions of masculinity supports the utility of the gender role strain paradigm in clinical work.     

Extending transformational leadership theory to parenting and adolescent health behaviours: an integrative and theoretical review

Abstract

Parenting is a critical social determinant of the health-related behaviours of adolescents. In this article, we argue that extending transformational leadership theory to parenting presents an opportunity for developing a useful conceptual model for (a) understanding the relationships between parenting and adolescents’ health behaviours and (b) supporting the development of parenting interventions. First, we provide a brief review of the extant literature on parenting styles and practices as it relates to adolescent health. Second, after drawing parallels between parents and leaders, we provide a synopsis of transformational leadership theory, and explain the conceptual utility of this framework for understanding and evaluating parenting behaviours. Third, we draw from the leadership and behavioural medicine literatures to outline potential psychological mechanisms through which transformational parenting might predict adolescent health-related behaviours. We conclude by discussing opportunities for the implementation of evidence-based transformational parenting intervention research designed to support parenting behaviours.     

The role of therapeutic format in the treatment of sexual dysfunction: A review

Review of the literature evaluating different formats for the delivery of behavioral sex therapy suggests that group therapy, minimal therapist contact bibliotherapy, and standard couple therapy all have demonstrable effectiveness; such differences as have been found between them have been subtle. Variations within these formats indicate that one therapist is as effective as two, the render of the therapist does not influence therapeutic outcome, and that massed and spaced sessions, with minimal exceptions, produce equivalent therapeutic effects. The authors argue, however, that it is premature to conclude that all therapeutic contexts are equally effective. Human sexual response is complex, therapy programs are multifaceted, and therapy outcome may be measured in multiple ways, yielding dramatically different results, judgments regarding therapeutic effectiveness will vary as well depending upon whether cognitive, affective or behavioral therapy outcome criteria are employed. Adequate evaluation of therapy as a function of mode of therapy delivery must take these considerations into account.     

Risky sexual behavior in american white college women: the role of sex guilt and sexual abuse

Ninety-five sexually active White American female college students participated in a questionnaire study about their sexual behavior in the past 12 months. A path model was tested in order to assess specific hypothesized predictors of risky sexual behavior. As predicted, participants with greater sex guilt reported using condoms more and having had fewer sexual partners. The findings of this study suggest that White American female college students are at some degree of risk due to risky sexual behavior. Taking into account attitudes about sexuality and past sexual abuse along with the requisite training in condom use self-efficacy may enhance the success of interventions designed to reduce risky sexual behavior among White American female college students.     

Predictors of parenting among economically disadvantaged latina mothers: mediating and moderating factors

Structural equation modeling was used to examine the role of ecological risk factors, maternal psychological distress, and social network support on the parenting behaviors of 535 economically disadvantaged Latina mothers, who were surveyed for the Welfare Children, & Families: A Three City Study. We predicted that ecological risk would influence mothers' parenting through their psychological distress but that social support would buffer the effects of ecological risk on mothers' depressive symptoms. As predicted, ecological risk was associated with higher contemporaneous psychological distress, which, in turn, predicted lower positive parenting behaviors approximately 18 months later. Social network support buffered the impact of the ecological risk on mothers' symptoms of psychological distress and, thereby, also buffered its indirect effect on parenting behaviors. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Theoretical review. Progesterone: inhibition of rodent sexual behavior.

The inhibitory effects of progesterone (P) can be observed in many vertebrates of either sex. In female rodents, P man act to terminate the period of receptivity and to prevent proestrus reinduction of receptivity at times when plasma P is minimal (immediately postestrus) or maximal (during the luteal phase). Inhibition is probably accomplished via an interaction with estrogen although P does have profound general anesthetic properties. Inhibition of receptive behavior has been induced by P implanted in the rodent midbrain, but implants in other regions of the central nervous system were ineffective. This correlates with the observation that rodent midbrain concentrates P more that other brain regions. Modes of progesterone-estrogen interaction are discussed.     

Parenting matters: a longitudinal study into parenting and adolescent sleep

The current three‐wave longitudinal study examined the differential relations between general parenting behaviour (monitoring, autonomy granting, and the quality of the parent–adolescent relationship) and adolescent sleep (bedtimes, time in bed, sleep quality and sleepiness) over a period of 2 years. At Time 1, the sample consisted of 650 adolescents between 12 and 15 years old (M = 13.36 years; SD = 0.55 years). At Time 2, 563 adolescents participated, and at Time 3 there were 493 adolescents. The distribution of boys and girls was about equal. Adolescents completed questionnaires in the classroom. Linear mixed model analyses were performed, controlling for sex, age, social economic status and ethnicity. Results showed that higher levels of monitoring contributed to earlier bedtimes, longer time in bed, better sleep quality and less sleepiness. The parent–adolescent relationship quality showed positive associations with time in bed, sleep quality and sleepiness, but not with bedtimes. Autonomy granting appeared hardly to be related to any of the sleep variables. In addition, passing of time, sex and ethnicity contributed to adolescent sleep as main effects or in interaction with parental control and support, suggesting that the main effects of monitoring and the quality of the parent–adolescent relationship are not constant across the whole range of the covariates. Based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded that general parenting behaviour may contribute to better adolescent sleep over time. Therefore, the involvement of parents in improvement of adolescent sleep is highly advocated.     

Predictors of risky sexual behavior in African American adolescent girls: implications for prevention interventions

OBJECTIVE: To describe empirically the risky sexual behavior of an at-risk sample of adolescent girls, to assess psychosocial correlates of risky behavior, and to examine the utility of applying a risk and protective model to predicting teens' risky sexual behavior. METHOD: Participants included 158 African American girls, ages 12 to 19, who were receiving medical care in an adolescent primary care clinic. Teens completed measures of depression, conduct problems, substance use, peer norms, social support, HIV knowledge, sexual self-efficacy, and sexual behavior. RESULTS: Teens in this sample reported high rates of risky sexual behaviors, including early sexual debuts and frequent unprotected sexual encounters with multiple partners. African American girls who reported high rates of substance use and who reported that their peers engaged in risky behaviors also reported engaging in high rates of risky sexual behaviors. Little support was obtained for protective factors (HIV knowledge, social support, sexual self-efficacy) moderating the relations between risk factors and adolescents' risky sexual behavior in this sample. CONCLUSIONS: Teens presenting in primary care settings in urban environments seem to be at high risk for HIV, STDs, and substance abuse, and risk reduction strategies should be introduced during the preteen years. An interdisciplinary model of care in primary care settings serving adolescents is clearly indicated, and prevention-oriented interventions aimed at reducing risky behaviors and preventing the development of more significant health, mental health, or substance abuse disorders are needed.     

Effects of methylphenidate and behavior modification on the social and academic behavior of children with disruptive behavior disorders: the moderating role of callous/unemotional traits.

This study examined whether response to behavior modification with and without methylphenidate differed for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct problems (CP) depending on the presence of callous/unemotional (CU) traits. Participants were 37 children ages 7 to 12, including 19 with ADHD/CP-only and 18 with ADHD/CP-CU, referred to a university-based summer treatment program. Results showed that ADHD/CP-CU children had worse behavior in the behavior-therapy-only (BT-only) condition, especially on measures of CP, noncompliance, and rule violations, but these differences largely disappeared when medication was added to BT. Children with ADHD/CP-CU were also less likely to be normalized by treatment than were children with ADHD/CP-only. These findings, though tentative, suggest that children with ADHD/CP-CU may not show a sufficient positive response to BT alone and that the combination of medication and BT may be especially important for them.     

Effects of gain- and loss-framed messages on the sun safety behavior of adolescents: the moderating role of risk perceptions

This study examined how message framing effects can be moderated by two types of risk: (a) perceived effectiveness in preventing a risk and (b) perceived susceptibility to the risk. The results indicate that the perceived effectiveness moderated framing effects on the intention to use sunscreen such that a loss-framed message was more effective when perceived effectiveness was low, whereas a gain-framed message was more effective when perceived effectiveness was high. In addition, perceived susceptibility to skin cancer moderated framing effects on the intention to use sunscreen and the intention to wear long pants such that a loss-framed message was more effective when perceived susceptibility was high.     

Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: evidence of moderating and mediating effects

This paper reviews studies that have tested for moderators or mediators of the relation between stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology. Many studies have tested for moderation, but results of research studying moderators have been inconclusive. There have been few theory-based studies and there have been few consistent findings. Far fewer studies have tested for mediation effects, but these studies have generally been theory-driven, have more often built upon one another in an incremental fashion, and have yielded consistent results. In particular, there is substantial evidence for the mediating role of family relationship in the relation between stressors and child and adolescent psychological symptoms. Future studies should integrate moderator and mediator research by testing for specific mediators in relation to particular moderating contexts, so that we can better understand the complex ways in which stressful life experiences affect the well-being of children and adolescents.