Women,Smoking, Cigarette Advertising and Cancer

Cigarette smoking is a major cause of cancer in women, accounting for about one-fourth of their estimated 219,000 cancer deaths per year. Cigarette smoking specifically increases a woman's risk of developing cancer of the lung, larynx, esophagus, oral cavity, pancreas, kidney, bladder, and possibly uterine cervix. During the past twenty years, concerted efforts have been made by the tobacco industry to increase sales to women. Strategies have included development of "feminine" brands such as Virginia Slims, slick media campaigns portraying smoking as elegant and glamorous, and sponsorship of fashion, women's sports events, and even medical programs. Reversal of these alarming trends requires that women as well as men recognize the role of cigarette smoking in cancer causation, and support programs which promote non-smoking as well as combat the influence of the tobacco industry on women's smoking behavior.     

Physical, Psychological, Social, and Lifestyle Differences Among Adolescents Classified According to Cigarette Smoking Intention Status

This study was conducted to determine the extent to which multiple physical, psychological, social, and lifestyle measures differ among high school males classified according to cigarette smoking intention status including nonintenders, mild intenders, and strong intenders. The Physical Performance Test for California, to measure six traits of physical fitness and Cattell's 16PF Questionnaire to assess manifold dimensions of personality were administered to 386 high school males. Self-concept was measured by Rosenberg's Self-esteem Scale and body build was assessed using Tucker's Perceived Somatotype Scale and the Body Mass Index. Data relative to marital status of parents, exercise experience, church attendance, participation in athletics, alcohol drinking habits, television viewing behavior, intention to attend college, dating behavior, as well as general demographic information and intention to smoke cigarettes were assessed by a written questionnaire. Results indicated that nonintenders were significantly more self-confident, intelligent, emotionally stable, moralistic, conservative, group oriented, self-controlled, relaxed, and more likely to respond in a socially desirable manner than were strong intenders. Nonintenders reported less dating, less television viewing, less alcohol consumption, and perceived themselves as and were determined to be less obese than strong intenders. Nonintenders also reported greater intentions to attend college, greater varsity athletic participation, were more likely to be residing with their natural mothers, and were more physically fit than were strong intenders. Possible health education and youth smoking prevention strategies are discussed.     

Beta-Carotene Increases Lung Cancer Incidence in Cigarette Smokers

Clinical trials were designed to validate the protective effect of β-carotene in populations of cigarette smokers at high risk for lung cancer development. Strikingly, an increase in lung cancer resulted following β-carotene supplementation in two separate studies in Finland and the United States. These trials were conducted without any evidence that β-carotene prevents lung cancer in animal models.     

Influence of Nativity Status on Breast Cancer Risk Among US Black Women

Black women are at increased risk for breast cancer mortality. The black category is assumed to be homogeneous, an assumption that may be misleading. This study aims to examine the relationship between nativity and breast cancer risk factors among women identified as black. A sample of 236 black women over 18 years of age in Brooklyn, New York, was recruited. Data were collected on race/ethnicity, breast cancer risk factors, and other sociodemographic, behavioral, and early life experience factors. Logistic regression analyses were used to estimate prevalence ratios for association between nativity and breast cancer risk factors. US-born blacks were more likely to be unemployed, smoke, not breastfeed, and breastfeed for a shorter duration than foreign-born blacks (all p≤0.01). Foreign-born blacks were more likely to have parents who achieved at least a high school education (p<0.05). After adjustment for smoking, employment, and parental education, US-born blacks were twice as likely to never breastfeed (PR 2.2, 95% CI: 1.1, 4.46) compared to foreign-born blacks. Among women who breastfed, US-born blacks were also less likely to breastfeed for 6–11 months or more than 12 months, but these associations were not statistically significant. Because lactation reduces breast cancer risk and is a leading modifiable risk factor, understanding its variation within black women will help physicians and public health practitioners to target patient counseling and education of breast cancer risk. Borrell, Castor, and Terry are with the Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Conway is affiliated at Adelphi University, New York, NY, USA.     

Breast Cancer Incidence Rates Among Orthodox Jewish Women

BRCA 1/BRCA2 founder mutations have been documented among Ashkenazi Jews. Little is known about cancer rates and cancer-related health behaviors among an insular subset of this population, Orthodox Jews. The goal of this study was estimate the risk of breast and ovarian among the Orthodox Jewish population. We used geo-coding with surveillance, epidemiology, and end results (SEER) data to identify this subgroup and estimate breast and ovarian cancer rates. Relative to neighborhoods with lower estimated Jewish populations, higher breast cancer rates were found in neighborhoods with higher estimated Orthodox Jewish population, there were no comparable differences in ovarian cancer rates. Implications include more research on health behaviors that may contribute to breast cancer in this insular community.     

Factors Associated with Prenatal Smoking Among Black Women in Eastern North Carolina

Objectives: The objective of this research was to explore prenatal smoking behaviors among Black women attending prenatal clinics. Despite the racial disparities in poor pregnancy outcomes, and the well-known association of smoking with harmful outcomes, little research has been conducted about prenatal smoking among Black women. Methods: Women were enrolled in the study and interviewed at the time of the first prenatal visit. The interview contained items to assess prenatal smoking and cessation, depressive symptoms, demographic factors, and beliefs about smoking. Reports of smoking cessation were verified using urinary cotinine. Results: The sample consisted of 811 Black women. Fourteen percent of the women were self-reported smokers, 12.6% reported cessation and 73% were nonsmokers. Twenty percent of the self-reported quitters had elevated cotinine; when these women were reclassified, 17% of the women were smokers. Factors associated with smoking in logistic regression analysis included elevated maternal depressive symptoms (OR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.1–2.6), maternal age 20 years or older (OR = 1.94; 95% CI: 1.1, 3.3), less than a high school education (OR = 2.2; 95% CI: 1.2, 3.8), unmarried/not living with a partner (OR = 1.9; 95% CI: 1.0, 3.6), and allowing smoking in the home (OR = 5.5; 95% CI: 3.4, 8.6). Conclusions: The prevalence of maternal prenatal smoking was much higher among women in this sample than has been previously reported. The rate of nondisclosure of smoking among self-reported quitters was also high. Maternal behavioral (allowing smoking in the home) and psychosocial factors (depressive symptoms) were associated with prenatal smoking.     

Meat Consumption and Risk of Lung Cancer Among Never-Smoking Women

The relationship between diet and lung cancer, apart from the protective effect of fruit and vegetables, is poorly understood. Reports on the role of dietary components such as meat are inconsistent, and few studies include sufficient numbers of nonsmokers. We examined the relationship between meat consumption and never-smoking lung cancer in a hospital-based case–control study of Singapore Chinese women, a population with low smoking prevalence. Three hundred and ninety-nine cases and 815 controls were recruited, of whom 258 cases and 712 controls were never smokers. A standardized questionnaire (which included a food frequency questionnaire module) was administered by trained interviewers. Among these never smokers, fruit and vegetable intake were inversely associated with lung cancer risk. Seventy-two percent of meat consumed was white meat (chicken or fish). Meat consumption overall was inversely associated with lung cancer [adjusted odds ratio (OR), 0.88, 0.59 for second, third tertiles, P _trend = .012]. An inverse relationship between fish consumption and lung cancer (adjusted OR, 0.81, 0.47 for 2nd, 3rd tertiles, P _trend < .001) was observed. No association was seen between consumption of processed meats and lung cancer, nor between dietary heterocyclic amines and lung cancer. Our data suggest that fish consumption may be protective against lung cancer in never smokers.     

Ages at Initiation of Cigarette Smoking and Quit Attempts Among Women: A Generation Effect

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to determine whether the age at initiation of regular cigarette smoking and the likelihood of quitting smoking through age 35 differ among women from younger versus older generations. METHODS: Annual population-based, random surveys (total of 3676 female residents of Geneva, Switzerland, aged 35-74 years) were conducted from 1992 to 1998. RESULTS: Women younger than 55 years were more likely to be past or current smokers, began smoking earlier (median age < 20 years), and smoked more cigarettes per day than older women, yet attempted to quit smoking more often before age 35 (log-rank P <.001). CONCLUSIONS: Young female smokers have a higher propensity to quit smoking compared with older women. Encouraging young smokers to quit-in addition to preventing nonsmokers from starting-may be an important facet of reducing cigarette smoking prevalence among adolescents.     

Prenatal and Postnatal Fruit and Vegetable Intake Among US Women: Associations with WIC Participation

Objective Evaluate variation in fruit and vegetable intake by Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) participation and poverty status among pregnant, and postpartum women participating in the Infant Feeding Practice Study II (IFPSII). Methods IFPSII (2005–2007) followed US women from third trimester through 1 year postpartum through mailed questionnaires measuring income, WIC participation, breastfeeding; and dietary history questionnaires (DHQ) assessing prenatal/postnatal fruit and vegetable consumption. Poverty measurements used U.S. Census Bureau Federal Poverty thresholds to calculate percent of poverty index ratio (PIR) corresponding to WIC’s financial eligibility (≤185 % PIR). Comparison groups: WIC recipients; WIC eligible (≤185 % PIR), but non-recipients; and women not financially WIC eligible (>185 % PIR). IFPSII participants who completed at least one DHQ were included. Intake variation among WIC/poverty groups was assessed by Kruskal–Wallis tests and between groups by Mann–Whitney Wilcoxon tests and logistic regression. Mann–Whitney Wilcoxon tests examined postnatal intake by breastfeeding. Results Prenatal vegetable intake significantly varied by WIC/poverty groups (p = 0.04) with WIC recipients reporting significantly higher intake than women not financially WIC eligible (p = 0.02); association remained significant adjusting for confounders [odds ratio 0.66 (95 % confidence interval: 0.49–0.90)]. Prenatal fruit and postnatal consumption did not significantly differ by WIC/poverty groups. Postnatal intake was significantly higher among breastfeeding than non-breastfeeding women (fruit: p < 0.0001; vegetable: p = 0.006). Conclusions for Practice Most intakes did not significantly differ by WIC/poverty groups and thus prompts research on WIC recipient’s dietary behaviors, reasons for non-participation in WIC, and the influence of the recent changes to the WIC food package.     

Exploring Smoking Prevalence,Quit Attempts,and Readiness to Quit Cigarette Use Among Women in Substance Abuse Treatment

Client questionnaires from 38 gender-specific substance abuse facilities throughout Ohio were analyzed to explore smoking prevalence, quit attempts, and readiness to quit cigarette use. The analysis revealed 79.7% of women used cigarettes at the time of the survey, 33.5% of current smokers had made at least one quit attempt within the past 12 months, and 55.2% of current smokers reported either contemplating or preparing to make a quit attempt. A multinomial logistic regression revealed that clients who experienced a past quit attempt were more likely to be in the contemplation and preparation stages and clients who smoked 30 out of the past 30 days were least likely to be in the preparation stage. Clients who reported smoking between 10–15 cigarettes a day were more likely to be in the contemplation stage than those who reported smoking <10 cigarettes a day. A three-pronged approach that examines the physiological, emotional, and social components of addiction is recommended.     

女性非吸烟者中被动吸烟与肺癌关系的探讨

为了探索非吸烟者中肺癌发病原因，采用病例对照的方法对北京市ＳＩＮＯ－ＭＯＮＩＣＡ项目监测人群中的肺癌病例进行了调查，分析结果显示被动吸烟与非吸烟女性患肺癌有一定阳性关联（ＯＲ＝２．５２，Ｐ＜０．０５），并随被动吸烟年支的增加而上升，当达２００年支以上时有显著统计学意义（Ｐ＜０．０５）。环境香烟烟雾（ＥＴＳ）诱发肺腺癌的可能性较大（ＯＲ＝２．３２，Ｐ＜０．０５），而与肺鳞癌似无关系（ＯＲ＝１．０４，Ｐ＜０．０５）。     

非吸烟女性被动吸烟与肺癌发生的Meta分析研究

目的　探讨非吸烟女性中 ,被动吸烟与肺癌的关系。方法　通过计算机检索CBM、Medline、中国期刊网、英国国家医学图书馆等 ,并结合文献追溯的方法 ,收集国内外于 1990～ 2 0 0 2年间公开发表的关于非吸烟女性被动吸烟与肺癌的研究文献 ,采用随机效应模型 ,对各研究结果进行Meta分析 ,计算其合并比值比。结果　纳入合并分析的文章共有 14篇 ,合并结果表明 :被动吸烟年限与肺癌的关系无显著意义 ;不同年龄段的被动吸烟与肺癌发病的关系均不显著 (P >0 .0 5 ) ,未成年期和成年期 (婚后 )被动吸烟与肺癌合并OR值分别为 0 .814 1(95 %CI :0 .60 68～ 1.0 92 2 )和 0 .9988(95 %CI :0 .82 0 1～ 1.2 164 ) ;而成年期暴露于丈夫 (配偶 )的合并OR 1.2 784(95 %CI 1.0 3 2 0～ 1.5 83 8) ,关联具有显著意义 ,成年期暴露于工作场所的环境烟草烟雾与肺癌发生的 OR 为 1.0 2 44 (95 % CI:0 .83 2 5～ 1.2 60 6) ,但关联无显著意义。结论　在非吸烟女性中 ,被动吸烟与肺癌的关系仍不明确 ,需要进一步研究和探讨。     

农村地区肺癌死亡率趋势及其吸烟现状的研究

本文报告启东农村地区肺癌流行趋势及吸烟现状。结果表明,肺癌死亡率由1958年的1.04/10万上升到1989年的21.38/10万。肺癌在全癌中的顺位仅次于肝癌,胃癌而居第三位。启东地区肺癌死亡率的增长主要归因于烟草消费的迅速增长。基于本研究结论,预计本世纪未,肺癌将取代目前第二位的胃癌,而20年后将超过肝癌居癌症之首