Social health insurance reexamined

Social health insurance (SHI) is enjoying something of a revival in parts of the developing world. Many countries that have in the past relied largely on tax finance (and out-of-pocket payments) have introduced SHI, or are thinking about doing so. And countries with SHI already in place are making vigorous efforts to extend coverage to the informal sector. Ironically, this revival is occurring at a time when the traditional SHI countries in Europe have either already reduced payroll financing in favor of general revenues, or are in the process of doing so. This paper examines how SHI fares in health-care delivery, revenue collection, covering the formal sector, and its impacts on the labor market. It argues that SHI does not necessarily deliver good quality care at a low cost, partly because of poor regulation of SHI purchasers. It suggests that the costs of collecting revenues can be substantial, even in the formal sector where non-enrollment and evasion are commonplace, and that while SHI can cover the formal sector and the poor relatively easily, it fares badly in terms of covering the non-poor informal sector workers until the economy has reached a high level of economic development. The paper also argues that SHI can have negative labor market effects. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

改革就医模式和卫生服务分工的效用分析

医疗费用上涨已成为多数人关注的热点，在引起费用上升的诸多因素中，远距离就医、需方的卫生服务需求理念和供方的接诊行为以及当前的医疗保险形式均起着不同的作用，本文仅从这三方面简单分析卫生费用的运作过程以及潜在的节省途径。     

Financing mental health services in low- and middle-income countries

Mental disorders account for a significant and growing proportion of the global burden of disease and yet remain a low priority for public financing in health systems globally. In many low-income countries, formal mental health services are paid for directly by patients out-of-pocket and in middle-income countries undergoing transition there has been a decline in coverage. The paper explores the impact of health care financing arrangements on the efficient and equitable utilization of mental health services. Through a review of the literature and a number of country case studies, the paper examines the impact of financing mental health services from out-of-pocket payments, private health insurance, social health insurance and taxation. The implications for the development of financing systems in low- and middle-income countries are discussed. International evidence suggests that charging patients for mental health services results in levels of use which are below socially efficient levels as the benefits of the services are distributed according to ability to pay, resulting in inequitable access to care. Private health insurance poses three main problems for mental health service users: exclusion of mental health benefits, limited access to those without employment and refusal to insure pre-existing conditions. Social health insurance may offer protection to those with mental health problems. However, in many low- and middle-income countries, eligibility is based on contributions and limited to those in formal employment (therefore excluding many with mental health problems). Tax-funded systems provide universal coverage in theory. However, the quality and distribution of publicly financed health care services makes access difficult in practice, particularly for rural poor communities.     

Demand for voluntary health insurance in developing countries: the case of Vietnam's school-age children and adolescent student health insurance program

Many developing countries are trying to expand health insurance to achieve universal coverage, yet enrolling informal sector workers and the rural population remains a challenge. A good knowledge of factors driving demand for health insurance among these groups is therefore important. The current study contributes to this body of knowledge by analyzing demand for school-age children and adolescent student (aged 6-20) health insurance, a major voluntary health insurance scheme in Vietnam. Data were drawn form the Vietnam National Health Survey (2001-2002). We found that demand increases significantly with the expected benefits of insurance as measured by proximity to and quality of a tertiary hospital. There is a strong socio-economic gradient both at the household and commune levels, with wealthier, more educated households in better-off communes significantly more likely to purchase insurance for their children. No clear evidence of adverse selection is observed whether health status is assessed objectively or subjectively. Finally, while female heads of household are generally more prone to purchase health insurance for their children, households prioritize young children, male children, and those children with more schooling in their purchase decision. Findings emphasize the need to understand the effects of both health system factors and intra-household dynamics in resource allocation to explain the demand for health insurance in developing countries.     

Community-based health insurance and access to maternal health services: evidence from three West African countries

Community-based health insurance (CBHI) has been incorporated into the health financing strategies of governments and communities in several Sub-Saharan African countries. Despite the support for and proliferation of CBHI schemes in this region, empirical evidence on how CBHI impacts access to health care, particularly maternal health services, is very limited. We use recent household surveys in three West African countries--Senegal, Mali, and Ghana--to examine the relationship between CBHI membership and access to formal sector maternal health care. We find that membership in a CBHI scheme is positively associated with the use of maternal health services, particularly in areas where utilization rates are very low and for more expensive delivery-related care. Our findings suggest, however, that membership in a CBHI scheme is not sufficient to influence maternal health behaviors - it is the inclusion of maternal health care in the benefits package that makes a difference. While many questions remain about CBHI, this study provides preliminary evidence suggesting that CBHI is a potential demand-side mechanism to increase maternal health care access. However, complementary supply-side interventions to improve quality of and geographic access to health care are also critical for improving health outcomes in this region.     

浙江省卫生总费用筹集与医疗保障机制

卫生总费用的筹集直接关系到医疗保障机制的改革与完善,近年来随着国民经济的发展和人民生活水平的提高,浙江省卫生总费用筹资机制不断完善,提升了公民医疗保障水平,但也存在一些问题。本文通过浙江省卫生总费用筹集现状和问题分析,提出解决对策,以促进浙江省医疗保障机制的进一步完善。     

Indigence and access to health care in sub‐Saharan Africa

Access to health care services for the poor and indigent is hampered by current policies of health care financing in sub‐Saharan Africa. This paper reviews the issue as it is discussed in the international literature. No real strategies seem to exist for covering the health care of the indigent. Frequently, definitions of poverty and indigence are imprecise, the assessment of indigence is difficult for conceptual and technical reasons, and, therefore, the actual extent of indigence in Africa is not well known. Explicit policies rarely exist, and systematic evaluation of experiences is scarce. Results in terms of adequately identifying the indigent, and of mechanisms to improve indigents' access to health care, are rather deceiving. Policies to reduce poverty, and improve indigents' access to health care, seem to pursue strategies of depoliticizing the issue of social injustice and inequities. The problem is treated in a ‘technical’ manner, identifying and implementing ‘operational’ measures of social assistance. This approach, however, cannot resolve the problem of social exclusion, and, consequently, the problem of excluding large parts of African populations from modern health care. Therefore, this approach has to be integrated into a more ‘political’ approach which is interested in the process of impoverishment, and which addresses the macro‐economic and social causes of poverty and inequity. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

浅谈医疗保险制度与医疗卫生体制改革

简述了医疗保险制度改革与城市医疗卫生体制改革的关系,着重介绍了上海医疗保险制度与医疗卫生体制改革并举的主要措施.同时,提出了进一步推进医疗保险制度与城市医疗卫生体制改革的意见.     

Consumer-led demand side financing in health and education and its relevance for low and middle income countries

There is increasing awareness that supply subsidies for health and education services often fail to benefit those that are most vulnerable in a community. This recognition has led to a growing interest in and experimentation with, consumer-led demand side financing systems (CL-DSF). These mechanisms place purchasing power in the hands of consumers to spend on specific services at accredited facilities. International evidence in education and health sectors suggest a limited success of CL-DSF in raising the consumption of key services amongst priority groups. There is also some evidence that vouchers can be used to improve targeting of vulnerable groups. There is very little positive evidence on the effect of CL-DSF on service quality as a consequence of greater competition. Location of services relative to population means that areas with more provider choice, particularly in the private sector, tend to be dominated by higher and middle-income households. Extending CL-DSF in low-income countries requires the development of capacity in administering these financing schemes and also accrediting providers. Schemes could focus primarily on fixed packages of key services aimed at easily identifiable groups. Piloting and robust evaluation is required to fill the evidence gap on the impact of these mechanisms. Extending demand financing to less predictable services, such as hospital coverage for the population, is likely to require the development of a voucher scheme to purchase insurance. This suggests an already developed insurance market and is unlikely to be appropriate in most low-income countries for some time.     

Health insurance and health services utilization in Ireland

The numbers buying private health insurance in Ireland have continued to grow, despite a broadening in entitlement to public care. About 40% of the population now have insurance, although everyone has entitlement to public hospital care. In this paper, we examine in detail the growth in insurance coverage and the factors underlying the demand for insurance. Attitudinal responses reveal the importance of perceptions about waiting times for public care, as well as some concerns about the quality of that care. Individual characteristics, such as education, age, gender, marital status, family composition and income all influence the probability of purchasing private insurance. We also examine the relationship between insurance and utilization of hospital in-patient services. The positive effect of private insurance appears less than that of entitlement to full free health care from the state, although the latter is means-tested, and may partly represent health status.     

Actor management in the development of health financing reform: health insurance in South Africa, 1994-1999

Health reform is inherently political. Sound technical analysis is never enough to guarantee the adoption of policy. Financing reforms aimed at promoting equity are especially likely to challenge vested interests and produce opposition. This article reviews the Health Insurance policy development in South Africa between 1994 and 1999. Despite more than 10 years of debate, analysis and design, no set of social health insurance (SHI) proposals had, by 1999, secured adequate support to become the basis for an implementation plan. In contrast, proposals to re-regulate the health insurance industry were speedily developed and implemented at the end of this period. The processes of actor engagement and management, set against policy goals and design details, were central to this experience. Adopting a grounded approach to analysis of primary interview data and a range of documentary material, this paper explores the dynamics between reform drivers engaged in directing policy change and a range of other actors. It describes the processes by which actors were drawn into health insurance policy development, the details of their engagement with each other, and it identifies where deliberate strategies of actor management were attempted and the results for the reform process. The primary drivers of this process were the Minister of Health and the unit responsible for health financing and economics in the national Department of Health Directorate of Health Financing and Economics, with support from members of the South African academic community. These actors worked within and through a series of four ad hoc policy advisory committees which were the main fora for health insurance policy development and the regulation of private health insurance. The different experiences in each committee are reviewed and contrasted through the lens of actor management. Differences between these drivers and opposition from other actors ultimately derailed efforts to establish adequate support for any form of SHI, even as regulatory proposals received sufficient support to be enacted in legislation. Drawing on this South African experience together with a simple analytical framework, the authors highlight five potential strategies by which reform drivers of any policy process could create alliances of support sufficient to overcome potential opposition to proposed policy changes. As little is currently known on how to manage the process of engaging actors in reform processes, these findings provide a foundation for further analysis of this issue.     

医保改革对医疗机构的影响

目的:从医疗服务供方的角度了解医保改革对医疗机构产生的作用和影响,为完善有关改革措施提供参考依据。方法:收集有关文献并采用定性调查的方法选取不同级别、不同类型医疗机构的管理和医务人员进行专题小组访谈和个别访谈。结果:医保改革促进了卫生服务的发展,也加剧了医疗机构之间的竞争;医保额度和有关指标的限定使医院的业务收入增幅有所下降,并促发了新矛盾的出现。结论:医保改革取得了一定成效,但医院在改革中呈现出压力过大、动力不足的状态,要发挥社会各方的作用,共同推进改革的顺利进行。     

The 2017 reform to improve financial sustainability of national health insurance in Estonia: Analysis and first lessons on broadening the revenue base

In 2017, the Estonian government addressed the longstanding challenge of financial sustainability of the health system by expanding its revenue base. As a relatively low-spending country on health, Estonia relies predominantly on payroll contributions from the working population, which exposes the system to economic shocks and population ageing. In an effort to reduce these vulnerabilities, Estonia will gradually introduce a government transfer on behalf of pensioners, although long-term sustainability of the health system could still prove challenging as the overall health spending as a percentage of GDP is not expected to substantially increase. Estonia has rolled out the reform according to plan, but it has led to debate about the need to achieve universal population coverage (currently at about 95%). Moreover, the Estonian experience also holds important lessons for other countries looking to reform their health system. For example, policymakers should recognize that reforms require extensive preparation using consistent messaging over a long period of time, also to prevent prioritising short term and popular fixes over structural reforms. Additionally, collaboration between the health and financial ministries throughout the reform increases the buy-in for the reform and likelihood of adoption. Furthermore, health professionals play a significant role in advocacy, and seeking support from this group can smooth the path towards health system reform.     

Medical malpractice reform and employer-sponsored health insurance premiums

Objective

Tort reform may affect health insurance premiums both by reducing medical malpractice premiums and by reducing the extent of defensive medicine. The objective of this study is to estimate the effects of noneconomic damage caps on the premiums for employer-sponsored health insurance.

Data Sources/Study Setting

Employer premium data and plan/establishment characteristics were obtained from the 1999 through 2004 Kaiser/HRET Employer Health Insurance Surveys. Damage caps were obtained and dated based on state annotated codes, statutes, and judicial decisions.

Study Design

Fixed effects regression models were run to estimate the effects of the size of inflation-adjusted damage caps on the weighted average single premiums.

Data Collection/Extraction Methods

State tort reform laws were identified using Westlaw, LEXIS, and statutory compilations. Legislative repeal and amendment of statutes and court decisions resulting in the overturning or repealing state statutes were also identified using LEXIS.

Principal Findings

Using a variety of empirical specifications, there was no statistically significant evidence that noneconomic damage caps exerted any meaningful influence on the cost of employer-sponsored health insurance.

Conclusions

The findings suggest that tort reforms have not translated into insurance savings.     

Social health insurance in Nepal: A health system departure toward the universal health coverage

The World Health Organization has identified universal health coverage (UHC) as a key approach in reducing equity gaps in a country, and the social health insurance (SHI) has been recommended as an important strategy toward it. This article aims to analyze the design, expected benefits and challenges of realizing the goals of UHC through the recently launched SHI in Nepal. On top of the earlier free health‐care policy and several other vertical schemes, the SHI scheme was implemented in 2016 and has reached population coverage of 5% in the implemented districts in just within a year of implementation. However, to achieve UHC in Nepal, in addition to operationalizing the scheme, several other requirements must be dealt simultaneously such as efficient health‐care delivery system, adequate human resources for health, a strong information system, improved transparency and accountability, and a balanced mix of the preventive, health promotion, curative, and rehabilitative services including actions to address the social determinants of health. The article notes that strong political commitment and persistent efforts are the key lessons learnt from countries achieving progressive UHC through SHI.     

The effect of variable health insurance deductibles on the demand for physician visits

In order to contain cost in the health care sector, the introduction of consumer incentives in health insurance has been suggested and realized in many countries. The Swiss health system reform of 1996 introduced a choice of deductible for health services in the mandatory basic health insurance. This paper estimates the effect of this choice on physician service utilization. A generalized method of moments (GMM) estimator is applied to take account of the endogeneity of the choice of the deductible in the estimation of the number of physician visits. This paper finds that most of the observed reduction in the number of physician visits among individuals who choose a higher deductible seems to be a result of self-selection of individuals into the respective insurance contracts, and not to induced changes in utilization behaviour.     

Targeted health insurance in a low income country and its impact on access and equity in access: Egypt's school health insurance

Governments are constantly faced with competing demands for public funds, thereby necessitating careful use of scarce resources. In Egypt, the School Health Insurance Programme (SHIP) is a government subsidized health insurance system that targets school children. The primary goals of the SHIP include improving access and equity in access to health care for children while, at the same time, ensuring programme sustainability. Using the Egyptian Household Health Utilization and Expenditure Survey (1995), this paper empirically assesses the extent to which the SHIP achieves its stated goals. Our findings show that the SHIP significantly improved access by increasing visit rates and reducing financial burden of use (out-of-pocket expenditures). With regard to the success of targeting the poor, conditional upon being covered, the SHIP reduced the differentials in visit rates between the highest and lowest income children. However, only the middle-income children benefitted from reduced financial burden (within group equity). Moreover, by targeting the children through school enrollment, the SHIP increased the differentials in the average level of access between school-going children and those not attending school (overall equity). Children not attending school tend to be poor and living in rural areas. Our results also indicate that original calculations may underestimate the SHIP financial outlays, thereby threatening the long run financial sustainability of the programme.     

The aftermath of health sector reform in the Republic of Georgia: effects on people's health

After the collapse of the Former Soviet Union a health reform process was undertaken in Georgia beginning in 1994. This process was intended to encompass all aspects of the health-care sector and to transform the Soviet-style health system into one that was directed towards quality of care, improved access, efficiency, and a strengthened focus on Primary Health Care (PHC). Health sector reform fundamentally changed the ways health care is financed in Georgia. There has been a transition to program-based financing, and payroll-tax-based social insurance schemes have been introduced. Despite these measures, the performance of the health system is still disappointing. All health programs are severely under-funded, and when the majority of the population is unemployed or self-employed, collection of taxes seems impossible. Overall, Georgian consumers are uninformed about the basic principles of health reforms and their entitlements and therefore do not support them. The analysis introduced in this paper of the current situation in Georgia establishes that the rush to insurance-based medicine was more a rush from the previous system than a well-thought-out policy direction. After 70 years of a Soviet rule, the country had no institutional capacity to provide insurance-based health care. To achieve universal coverage, or at least ensure that the majority of the population has access to basic health services, government intervention is essential. In addition, educating the public on reforms would allow the reform initiators to fundamentally change the nature of the reform process from a top-down centralized process to one that is demand-driven and collaborative.     

The impact of vouchers on the use and quality of health care in developing countries: A systematic review

Abstract

One approach to delivering healthcare in developing countries is through voucher programmes, where vouchers are distributed to a targeted population for free or subsidised health care. Using inclusion/exclusion criteria, a search of databases, key journals and websites review was conducted in October 2010. A narrative synthesis approach was taken to summarise and analyse five outcome categories: targeting, utilisation, cost efficiency, quality and health outcomes. Sub-group and sensitivity analyses were also performed. A total of 24 studies evaluating 16 health voucher programmes were identified. The findings from 64 outcome variables indicates: modest evidence that vouchers effectively target specific populations; insufficient evidence to determine whether vouchers deliver healthcare efficiently; robust evidence that vouchers increase utilisation; modest evidence that vouchers improve quality; no evidence that vouchers have an impact on health outcomes; however, this last conclusion was found to be unstable in a sensitivity analysis. The results in the areas of targeting, utilisation and quality indicate that vouchers have a positive effect on health service delivery. The subsequent link that they improve health was found to be unstable from the data analysed; another finding of a positive effect would result in robust evidence. Vouchers are still new and the number of published studies is limiting.     

职工医疗保险制度改革的艰巨性、复杂性

该从着眼于医疗保险制度改革的历史轨迹、中国医改的基本国情和上海医改的实际三个层面入手,从如何迎接老龄化、如何构建支撑体系、如何凝聚各种力量、如何兼顾弱势群体、如何兼顾利益调整力度、如何平稳过渡、如何兼顾不同人群的社会公平、如何兼顾医疗保险可操作性、如何保持医保和医药卫生事业协调发展的8个方面层层深入,较为系统地分析了医疗制度改革的艰巨性和复杂性。