Mazindol: its efficacy and mode of action in generating weight loss.

The influence of the anorectic mazindol in weight loss was investigated in a double-blind protocol. Additionally, the behavioral and metabolic effects of the drug were studied in order to determine its mechanism of action. Drug eligible participants were randomly assigned to mazindol and placebo and contrasted with a group of non drug eligible controls. All subjects attended a series of 6 lectures on the modification of eating and activity. Weight loss was greater for mazindol than placebo subjects (P < 0.05). Mazindol also decreased hunger ratings and between meal snacking. No differences were observed on the metabolic measures, laboratory eating and salivary output. Subjects on mazindol exhibited a greater incidence of side-effects. It may be that the influence of mazindol, and perhaps other anorectics as well, is in part attributed to positive expectations of reduced hunger which are induced by side-effects.     

Naturalistic observation of the snack-selecting behavior of obese and nonobese children

No previous study has examined the snack-selecting behavior of children although information from such a study may be useful in preventing and treating obesity or in determining its etiology. To provide data on this behavior, male (n = 190) and female (n = 166) children were unobtrusively observed purchasing snacks in either of two movie theaters. The amount of soft drinks and snack foods that were selected was recorded, and the corresponding caloric values were determined. Ratings were also made for obesity and sex. No differences for obesity or sex emerged on the measure of amount of calories selected. The implications of these results for the treatment of obesity are discussed.     

Personality and eating habit variables as predictors of severity of binge eating and weight

The present study investigated several personality and eating habit variables as predictors of the severity of binge eating and weight deviation. Subjects were 120 normal weight and overweight undergraduate women selected to vary along predetermined dimensions of weight and severity of binge eating. After providing relevant demographic and life history data, they completed a series of self-report questionnaires. Results of a canonical analysis support the independence of binge eating and weight. Two stepwise multiple regressions indicated that anorexic-like eating attitudes, dissatisfaction with body image, and poor self-image were significant predictors of the severity of binge eating while none of the measures was a significant predictor of weight deviation. The amount of stress experienced in the past year was found to be the only significant demographic/historical predictor of binge eating. These findings are discussed with respect to their implications for current understanding of the binge eating phenomenon.     

The obese eating style: bites, beliefs, and behavior modification.

The behavioral treatment of obesity is based on several assumptions which have remained virtually unexamined. Two of these contend that (a) obese and non-obese individuals display distinctive eating styles, and (b) the obese person can reduce by adopting the eating style of the non-obese person. Four studies are described which examined some of the assumptions and components of behavior modification strategies. In general, the data did not support the eating style distinction. Moreover, the findings from one study suggest that cognitive factors (beliefs) may exert a stronger influence on food consumption than some of the behavior change procedures typically employed.     

The topography of binge eating

The present study investigated the topography of binge eating by comparing characteristics of eating episodes recorded by individuals who engage in binge eating (n = 29) with those who do not (n = 27), and characteristics of binge and non-binge episodes recorded by individuals who binge eat. For 2 weeks, subjects continuously recorded the type and quantity of food eaten during each eating episode, time and place of consumption, number of persons present, mood while eating, and whether the food eaten was part of a meal or snack. Results indicated binge eaters experienced negative moods during a significantly greater proportion of their eating episodes than non-binge eaters. Within the group of binge eaters, negative moods were experienced during a significantly greater proportion of binge episodes than non-binge episodes. Furthermore, binge episodes occurred significantly more often than non-binge episodes from 6:00 to 12:00 p.m. and significantly less often at appropriate places. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The reliability of Thiocyanate measurement of smoking exposure

Procedures for the determination of thiocyanate (SCN) levels in saliva samples were evaluated in a series of three experiments. Laboratory analysis procedures as well as sampling and storage conditions were examined to identify sources of measurement error in the assessment of SCN. The results of the study indicated that spectrophotometric analysis of saliva samples can be a reliable method of determining SCN levels. Also, storage containers, length of storage and storage temperatures can lead to critical differences in SCN level when saliva samples were not analyzed immediately after sampling. Guidelines for the assessment of saliva SCN are provided in a discussion of the results.     

Component analysis in smoking prevention research: Effects of social consequences information

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of information about the negative social consequences of cigarette smoking on adolescents' beliefs and intentions to smoke. In contrast to the large-scale, multiple component interventions most commonly conducted, this study compared two brief videotaped messages that contained either social consequences or control information. Fifty-four seventh graders enrolled in health education classes participated. Measures collected immediately after the intervention and at a one month follow-up indicated that the social consequences information successfully altered subjects' smoking-related beliefs. The social consequences information also affected intentions to smoke in the future, but only for subjects who had previously experimented with smoking. Female smokers' intentions to continue smoking were reduced, but the intervention had the opposite effect on male smokers. The discussion addresses the importance of examining the effects of prevention program components on different subsamples of adolescents in small-scale process evaluations.     

Three-year data on a behavioral treatment for smoking: A follow-up note

A study reported by Lando (1981) compared two-stage treatment (aversion, maintenance) against three-stage treatment (preparation, aversion, and maintenance) under conditions of either intensive or minimal experimenter contact. One-year follow-up data indicated the superiority of the two-stage intensive contact procedure. The present article reports additional follow-up data at 12, 18, 24, and 36 months. Results continued to favor two-stage intensive contact. Long-term abstinence in this condition consistently exceeded 40% as opposed to less than 25% in the other conditions.     

Assessing disulfiram compliance: Validational study of an abbreviated breath test procedure

An abbreviated breath test for detecting the disulfiram metabolite carbon disulfide (CS₂) was evaluated in an analogue investigation of the sensitivity of the test in identifying disulfiram and non-disulfiram intake in a group of 14 alcoholic inpatients. Disulfiram (250 mg) was administered within an ABAB repeated measures design over a 12-day period with corresponding breath tests administered during morning and afternoon time periods. Dependent measures included spectrophotometric analysis of reacted test samples and visual ratings of sample color. Results indicated that the test was highly sensitive in discriminating disulfiram administration for the group as a whole, as well as for individual subjects. Moreover, visual ratings were more accurate than spectrophotometric cut-off scores in identifying disulfiram administration. The test shows considerable promise as a rapid means of assessing disulfiram compliance.     

Drinking and creativity: Objective and subjective effects

A literature characterized by considerable speculation but a paucity of empirical studies prompted this experiment on the relation between drinking and creativity. After being queried about how they believed alcohol would affect their creative performance, 40 male undergraduate social drinkers were assigned to one of four treatments in a balanced placebo design. Those actually receiving alcohol consumed a mixture containing .6 g of ethanol per kg of body weight. All subjects then completed the entire Figural portion and the Unusual Uses subtest of the Verbal portion of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Posttesting explored subjects' own evaluations of their creative products and the kinds of attributions they made about factors contributing to the outcomes. Results showed minimal effects of beverage manipulations on measured creativity even when a priori belief and concurrent mood scores were covaried. However, those individuals who thought they had received alcohol gave significantly more positive evaluations of their creative performances than did subjects who believed they were in the non-alcohol treatments. Subjects did not attribute changes in creativity to drinking. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings were discussed.     

Social modeling as a determinant of drinking behavior: Implications for prevention and treatment

The consumption of alcohol has often been described as a socially mediated activity (MacAndrew & Edgerton, 1969). Social-learning approaches of alcohol use endorse this view and conceptualize drinking habits as being on a continuum from abstinence to problem drinking. On such a continuum the “social drinker” represents a moderate level of alcohol use. Moderate drinking habits are said to develop via the laws of learning, including the influence of social processes such as modeling. Since we learn adaptive styles and levels of alcohol use via such social influence processes it seems likely that the use of techniques such as modeling should be a highly effective strategy for preventing and treating the development of maladaptive drinking habits.     

Screening for anorexia and bulimia nervosa in a college population: Problems and limitations

In relation to prevalence studies, bulimia and anorexia nervosa symptoms have been reported to be surprisingly high, although such studies have relied upon questionnare data. The present study examines the reliability and validity of an eating disorder questionnaire (Eating Attitudes Test) in discriminating anorexics and bulimics from a general female college population. Of an initial test sample of 162 subjects, 56 were subsequently interviewed and retested. The results indicated that the questionnaire gave a high false positive rate for both eating disorders. Discussion focuses on limitations of questionnaire data in determining bulimia prevalence rates.     

Alcoholic drinking topography as a function of solitary versus social context

Thirty chronic alcoholics were asked to drink equivalent amounts of preferred alcoholic beverage in both group and individual contexts. Each subject participated in three group drinking sessions and three individual drinking sessions in a within-subject randomized sequence. The results showed that topographical and quantitative characteristics of drinking behavior did not significantly differ as a function of social context.     

Implications of self-monitoring for smoking treatment: Effects on adherence and session attendance

The reactive effects of three self-monitoring procedures were evaluated with respect to compliance with the self-monitoring requirements and session attendance. A total of 50 smokers who agreed to participate in a smoking cessation program were randomly assigned to one of five conditions: three self-monitoring conditions and two no self-monitoring control conditions. Results indicate that groups were initially equal on the variables of age, sex, pack year history, estimated rate of consumption, and alveolar carbon monoxide level. Drop-out rates for the no self-monitoring control groups were equal at the second session (10% each) and significantly lower than those of the self-monitoring groups (40%, 40%, and 60%). This significant differences was still present at the sixth treatment session. The implications of increased drop-out rates in smoking cessation programs resulting from self-monitoring are discussed.     

Alcoholics anonymous: An empirical outcome study

Fifty-six alcoholic patients (27 males and 29 females) who completed an inpatient AA treatment program were followed for two years. Follow-up evaluation consisted of interviews with patients, spouses, AA sponsors, and significant others regarding patients' employment, social-civil functioning, drinking-drug usage, and AA meeting attendance. Data were obtained on 45 patients at 6 months and on 43 patients at one and two years post-discharge. Patients on whom no or insufficient data could be obtained were considered ‘failures.’ Two criteria of success were used: AA criteria which requires patients to be employed-productively functioning, and socially-civilly stable, and abstinent, and General criteria which allows either abstinence or light to moderate drinking without evidence of abuse. Of those who completed the inpatient program, 51%, 45%, and 49% met AA criteria of success at 6, 12, and 24 months respectively, while 53%, 51%, and 56% met the General criteria at respective follow-up intervals. Additional data on male-female, drinking history, etc. differences and interactions are provided.     

Influence of social setting and social drinking stimuli on drinking behavior

The present study examined the influence of social setting cues and alcohol drinking cues on the drinking rate and amount of beer consumed by social drinkers (college age males). The design consisted of three experimental conditions (N = 8); a social drinking condition in which the individual drank beer in the company of a beer drinking partner, a social setting condition in which the individual drank with a nondrinking partner, and a solitary setting, control condition. Analyses of variance revealed a significant group effect for amount of alcohol consumed, P <.05, and for sip rate, P <.05, suggesting that social setting cues were discriminate for higher rates and larger amounts of alcohol consumption by social drinkers. These findings are inconsistent with the negative findings reported by Foy & Simon (1978) in their comparison of drinking behavior of alcoholics in social vs. solitary settings. Further research is recommended in order to replicate the obtained findings with alcoholics, as well as with social drinkers, while extending the drinking interval beyond 50 minutes.     

Effects of preparation,experimenter contact,and a maintained reduction alternative on a broad-spectrum program for eliminating smoking

The present investigation compared the successful two-stage treatment reported by Lando (1977) against an intensified version of a less successful three-stage program (Lando, 1978). Minimal experimenter contact and maintained reduction for nonabstinent subjects were also assessed. Subjects were 44 males and 56 females. Although there was a consistent trend for two-stage treatment to produce better results than three-stage treatment, differences between these conditions were significant only at 12-month follow-up. Intensive contact was superior to minimal contact only at Week 1. The maintained reduction procedure was not successfully implemented. Significant interactions were evident between experimenter contact and treatment stages throughout the follow-up period, with two-stage subjects appearing to benefit from intensive contact and three-stage subjects actually doing better under minimal contact. Results supported the efficacy of the two-stage aversion and maintenance program first reported by Lando (1977). Results also contradicted the assumption that more complex is necessarily better and pointed to the inadequacy of simple post hoc alternatives for nonabstinent subjects.     

Nicotine fading as a nonaversive alternative in a broad-spectrum treatment for eliminating smoking

The present investigation assessed the effectiveness of nicotine fading as a non-aversive alternative to oversmoking. Subjects (66 women and 64 men) were randomly assigned to oversmoking, nicotine fading, nicotine fading/smokeholding, and a nonmaintenance control. Results failed to indicate the expected superiority of nicotine fading/maintenance over the control condition. Instead, the addition of smokeholding appeared to produce a significant incremental effect over nicotine fading alone. Unfortunately, 12-month follow-up revealed considerable relapse across conditions and no significant treatment effects. Even so, absolute outcome for nicotine fading/smokeholding was encouraging. This procedure is both safe and apparently very acceptable to subjects. If the current results can be replicated, a clinically effective technique will have been established with applicability in both clinic and self-help settings.     

Experience-dependent recovery of cognitive functioning in young alcoholics

Spontaneous recovery of some cognitive functioning in alcoholics after drinking has ceased has been convincingly demonstrated, but there have been no demonstrations of recovery that occurs primarily due to exposure of the alcoholic to specific environmental events. In the present study two groups of alcoholics began a 3-week series of tests sensitive to alcoholic cognitive dysfunction at different time lags after drinking ceased (1 week vs. at least 3 weeks). Each group received five administrations each of three tests. On two of the measures, comparisons between the initial testings administered at least three weeks apart revealed the expected pattern of improvement concommitant with the passage of time. On the Halstead-Reitan Trailmaking Test (Part B), initial test scores were equivalent, showing no time-dependent recovery. Instead, performance improved solely as a function of repeated task administration, thus demonstrating "experience-dependent" recovery. Initial levels of impairment and the extent of recovery were established using two non-alcoholic control groups. Since evidence has accrued that alcoholics' treatment outcome may relate to neuropsychological status, experience-dependent rehabilitation of cognitive functioning may improve success rates in alcoholism treatment.     

Ambulatory detoxification of heroin addicts: a follow-up study.

The present study was devised to investigate whether or not 18 psychosocial characteristics of 141 male and 43 female heroin addicts who entered a 21-day ambulatory detoxification program were correlated with (1) length of stay, (2) completing the full course of detoxification, (3) being successfully transferred to aftercare treatment, and (4) being locatable for follow-up one month later. The study also described the status of the patients who were locatable one month after receiving their last dose of methadone in the detoxification program. Only 74 persons were contacted one month after receiving their last dose of methadone, and they were all in treatment. Eighty-three addicts were transferred to other programs before leaving the detoxification program. There were only two significant relationships between the 18 psychosocial characteristics and the four dependent variables. Number of arrests was inversely related to length of stay, and whites were more likely to be transferred to an aftercare program than blacks. The implications of the results for evaluating other ambulatory detoxification programs and for improving retention rates were discussed.