Costs of flexible sigmoidoscopy screening for colorectal cancer in the United Kingdom

OBJECTIVES: Colorectal cancer is one of the most commonly occurring cancers in industrialized countries, yet appears to be amenable to screening. Amongst the many possible protocols is once-only screening by means of flexible sigmoidoscopy. This protocol is currently being investigated in a UK multicenter trial and the study provides estimates of the expected resource costs. METHODS: The direct health care costs of sigmoidoscopy and of all subsequent procedures were estimated from an audit of resource use of approximately 40,000 patients at thirteen centers. Patient-borne costs were estimated from the results of surveys conducted at twelve of these centers. RESULTS: The health service costs of a flexible sigmoidoscopy was estimated at pounds 56. The total costs of screening (including private costs) averaged pounds 82 per person screened, although costs varied by center. The total health service costs of screening and subsequent management averaged approximately pounds 91 per person screened, again with variations between centers. CONCLUSIONS: Even within a strict trial protocol, intercenter variation in costs can be detected, ascribable to variability in local management practices, local yield, and local patient-borne costs. Other recent estimates of flexible sigmoidoscopy costs vary widely. As these costs form the basis of technology assessment simulation models which, in turn, inform policy obtaining realistic cost estimates within the appropriate health care setting is of paramount importance.     

Diagnostic performance of flexible sigmoidoscopy combined with fecal immunochemical test in colorectal cancer screening: meta-analysis and modeling

Once-only flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS), which reliably detects neoplasms in the distal colon and rectum but not in the proximal colon, has been shown to reduce incidence and mortality of distal colorectal cancer (CRC). Fecal immunochemical tests (FITs) detect the majority of CRCs and some proportion of adenomas also in the proximal colon. We assessed the expected diagnostic performance of combined application of FS and FIT. We systematically reviewed screening studies conducted in an average risk population that reported specificities and site-specific sensitivities of FITs for detection of CRC or advanced adenoma (AA). Only studies that conducted colonoscopy in all subjects were included. PubMed and Web of Science were searched until May 13, 2016. Reference lists of eligible studies were also screened. Sensitivity of FS was derived from colonoscopy results, assuming the same sensitivity as colonoscopy for left-sided neoplasms and follow-up colonoscopy after detection of distal adenomas. Bivariate meta-analyses were used to derive summary estimates of overall sensitivity and specificity of individual and joint application of both tests. Ten eligible studies were identified. Summary estimates (95% confidence intervals) of overall sensitivity for detecting CRC and AA were 65% (56–74%) and 27% (23–31%) for FIT alone, 67% (58–75%) and 67% (59–75%) for FS alone, and 89% (83–92%) and 75% (68–80%), respectively, for the combination of both tests. The pooled specificity (95% CI) of FIT was 92% (90–95%). Adding a FIT to a once-only screening FS would substantially increase sensitivity of CRC screening at a modest loss in specificity.     

Flexible sigmoidoscopy training and its impact on colorectal cancer screening by primary care physicians

BACKGROUND: Colorectal cancer is an ideal disease for prevention with screening programs. Efforts to increase compliance with screening recommendations have included training primary care physicians to perform flexible sigmoidoscopy. OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of flexible sigmoidoscopy training on compliance with current screening recommendations. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study of 232 patients cared for by physicians in a primary care network. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Rates of screening for colorectal cancer and rates of undergoing flexible sigmoidoscopy were compared across patient groups according to the physician's training and whether the physician performs flexible sigmoidoscopy in his or her practice. RESULTS: Among 217 patients included in the analysis, 122 (56%) were cared for by physicians who were trained in flexible sigmoidoscopy, of whom 79 (36%) were cared for by physicians who perform flexible sigmoidoscopy in their practice. Patients cared for by physicians trained in flexible sigmoidoscopy were not significantly more likely to receive any colorectal cancer screening than were patients cared for by physicians not trained in flexible sigmoidoscopy (odds ratio, 1.16; 95% confidence interval, 0.67-2.01). However, patients cared for by physicians who perform flexible sigmoidoscopy in their practice were more likely to have undergone any colorectal cancer screening (odds ratio, 1.73; 95% confidence interval, 1.02-2.95) and flexible sigmoidoscopy (odds ratio, 2.69; 95% confidence interval, 1.14-6.36). CONCLUSION: Performance of flexible sigmoidoscopy by primary care physicians has the potential to increase the rate of colorectal cancer screening with flexible sigmoidoscopy.     

Increasing compliance with colorectal cancer screening: the development of effective health education

The ability of a health education leaflet to raise awareness of the frequency of colorectal cancer and its asymptomatic nature and to increase intention to participate in screening with faecal occult blood testing (FOBT) was investigated. One hundred subjects were interviewed before and after reading the leaflet. The number of men stating bowel cancer was 'very common' increased significantly from 20 to 60% (chi 2 = 16.7, P < 0.0001) and those understanding its asymptomatic nature form 64 to 92% (chi 2 = 11.4, P < 0.001). The leaflet significantly increased the percentage of women reporting bowel cancer as 'very common' from 30 to 70% (chi 2 = 16.0, P < 0.0001) and as being asymptomatic from 58 to 94% (chi 2 = 17.8, P < 0.0001). After reading the leaflet, 55% of men who initially declined screening reversed their decision (chi 2 16.5, P < 0.0001) and 50% of female non-adherers reversed their decision (chi 2 = 17.3, P < 0.0001). Reasons most frequently given for declining colorectal cancer screening were feeling well (77% of subjects declining), concern about further tests (38%), unpleasantness of FOBT (13%) and illness (6%). This leaflet successfully educates people about colorectal cancer and increased intention to participate in screening programmes.     

Flexible sigmoidoscopy in colorectal cancer screening: implications of different colonoscopy referral strategies

Flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS) screening reduces colorectal cancer incidence and mortality. Its potential to detect proximal neoplasms depends on colonoscopy referral. We estimated diagnostic performance of sigmoidoscopy using 12 different referral criteria in detecting colorectal cancer and advanced adenomas. Colonoscopy results from 14,947 participants of screening colonoscopy in Germany were used to derive sensitivity of sigmoidoscopy for colorectal cancer, advanced adenomas (AAs), and any advanced neoplasms in the proximal colon. It was assumed that FS detects the same neoplasms as colonoscopy within its reach and that distal neoplasms would be followed by colonoscopy. In addition, numbers of colonoscopies needed (NCN) to detect one proximal advanced neoplasm were calculated. The most advanced findings during colonoscopy were colorectal cancer in 213 subjects (1.4%), AA in 1539 subjects (10.2%) and non-advanced adenomas in 2988 subjects (19.8%). Without colonoscopy referral, overall sensitivities for any colorectal cancer, advanced adenoma and any advanced neoplasm (proximal or distal) would be 79, 65 and 66%, respectively. These sensitivities could be increased to up to 86, 83 and 84% by the referral strategies investigated. Compared to referral due to advanced adenomas, referral due to non-advanced adenomas would substantially increase the NCN at a modest gain in sensitivity. Sensitivities were higher and NCNs were lower in men than in women for every strategy. In conclusion, colonoscopy referral can substantially increase sensitivity of sigmoidoscopy-based screening, but the gain by referral due to non-advanced adenomas substantially increases NCN compared to referral due to advanced neoplasms only. Major sex differences may call for sex-specific referral strategies.     

Declining the offer of flexible sigmoidoscopy screening for bowel cancer: a qualitative investigation of the decision-making process

Qualitative methods were used to investigate decision-making among a group of older adults who declined the offer of flexible sigmoidoscopy screening for bowel cancer. Interviews were conducted with 60 people (30 men and 30 women) who either had not responded to the screening letter or who responded saying that they were not interested in participating. The findings suggest that low perceived susceptibility to bowel cancer, in terms of current health status, family history or absence of bowel symptoms. was an important factor in the decision to decline screening. Procedural barriers such as embarrassment, pain/discomfort and perceived unpleasantness of the test were reported as relatively minor, although the test was considered more physically intrusive than other screening tests. Avoidant attitudes emerged as an important theme and were reported by a third of respondents. Distinct patterns of decision-making were also observed and three groups emerged from accounts: (i) forgetting or avoiding making a decision about the test (ii) a confident rejection of the test based on a few salient factors, and (iii) a more careful consideration of the test focusing on issues of susceptibility. The findings are discussed in the context of models of health behaviour and bowel cancer screening participation research.     

A survey of women regarding factors affecting colorectal cancer screening compliance

BACKGROUND: Women participate in colorectal cancer (CRC) screening less often than men. Our study objective was to understand factors related to women's use of CRC screening. We examined the personal health, medical care, and psychosocial responses to CRC and screening use of a community-based sample of women. METHODS: Women aged 50-80 years at average CRC risk completed a telephone questionnaire. We asked about demographics, past use of CRC and other cancer screening tests, preventive health measures, source of primary care, and comorbidities. We also inquired about attitudes and risk perceptions regarding CRC, knowledge about CRC screening, and other frequent health concerns. Logistic regression identified predictors of screening compliance. RESULTS: Four hundred six women (52% of women contacted, average age 63 years) provided responses. Sixty-five percent had completed some form of CRC screening in the past 5 years. Four factors were positively related to CRC screening: increasing age [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.05, (95% CI 1.03, 1.08)], perceived CRC risk [AOR = 1.92, (95% CI 1.19, 3.16)], belief that screening reduces CRC risk (AOR = 2.49, 95% CI 1.45, 4.27), and belief in following screening guidelines [AOR = 4.95, (95% CI 2.07, 11.90)]. Belief that screening would be painful [AOR = 0.52, (95% CI 0.32, 0.84)] was inversely related. CONCLUSIONS: Fear about CRC screening-related pain was the strongest impediment to screening, whereas positive attitudes about the value of CRC screening were strongly related to compliance. Addressing fears and emphasizing positive messages by providers should be included in programs promoting CRC screening in women.     

Gastric cancer in Tasmania (1978-1992)

A detailed analyses of gastric cancer incidence and mortality rates in Tasmania was done using fifteen years (1978-1992) of population based Tasmanian Cancer Registry data. The age standardised incidence rates for the period were 12.5 per 100,000 men (95% CI 11.4-13.6) and 5.2 per 100,000 women (95% CI 4.6-5.8). The age standardised mortality rates were 10.6 per 100,000 men (95% CI 9.6-11.6) and 4.1 per 100,000 women (95% CI 3.5-4.6). Male:Female ratio of mortality rates was 2.6. Gastric cancer mortality rates have now significantly declined among males (p = .03) and females (p = .02). No significant decline was observed for incidence rates among males (p = .1) and females (p = .3). For cases overall, there was a preponderance of intestinal type of gastric cancer (76.5%). No significant trend over time was observed in the mean rate of occurrence of intestinal or diffuse type of gastric cancer. The ratio of intestinal: diffuse was 6.5 for all ages. Among males, a significant (p = .03) upward trend in the incidence was observed for proximal tumours, while no such trend (p = .07) was observed among women. A significant decline in incidence of distal tumours was observed for males (p = .000) and females (p.007). Male:Female ratio for proximal tumour was 4.7:1. The results suggests that Tasmanians may have been a population at high risk of gastric cancer.     

上海市吴泾社区提高大肠癌筛查依从性的探索

[目的] 探索在城市社区提高大肠癌筛查依从性,特别是精筛依从性的方法。[方法] 由社区卫生服务中心主导,通过成立筛查小组、明确合作单位、细化筛查环节、及时追踪督促、集中宣传教育、简化肠镜检查手续等方法,开展大肠癌筛查,并对筛查结果进行分析。[结果] 2012年10月1日-2013年9月30日,吴泾社区共有7 507人接受了大肠癌筛查,经大便隐血试验确定初筛阳性对象427人,初筛阳性率为5.69%。427名大肠癌初筛阳性对象中,精筛依从率为90.40%,完成肠镜检查率为88.99%,检出大肠癌5例,检出率为1.32%,检出大肠癌前期病例84例,检出率为22.11%,大肠癌病例进一步治疗率为100.00%,癌前期病例进一步治疗率为75.00%。初筛阳性对象从初筛到接到阳性通知间隔的时间中位数为4 d,精筛为10 d,大肠癌患者从精筛到完成治疗的间隔时间中位数为3 d,大肠癌前期患者为25 d。[结论] 吴泾社区采用的组织形式和工作方法有利于提高大肠癌筛查的依从性。     

Prospective cohort study of compliance with faecal immunochemical tests for colorectal cancer screening in Hong Kong

Objective

This study aims to examine the rate and determinants of faecal immunochemical test (FIT) compliance over a four-year period among asymptomatic participants in a colorectal cancer (CRC) screening programme in Hong Kong.

Method

Self-referred screening participants aged between 50 and 70 years who chose FIT for annual screening were followed up for four years (2008–2012). All participants were reminded up to three times yearly for FIT retrieval within two months of the expected screening date. The proportions of screening participants who failed to adhere to annual FIT tests in 1, 2, 3 and 4-years, respectively, after the initial screening uptake were evaluated. The factors associated with non-compliance with FITs in any year were assessed by a binary logistic regression analysis.

Results

From 5700 consecutive screening participants, the compliance rates to FIT were 95.1%, 79.9%, 66.2% and 68.4% at years one to four, respectively. The proportions of people missing one, two and three tests were 6.2%, 19.6% and 2.1%, respectively. From multivariate regression analysis, male subjects, younger participants, smokers and those with positive family history of CRC were more likely to be non-compliant.

Conclusion

Participants identified as at higher risk for screening non-compliance should be especially considered for individual reminders to enhance screening effectiveness.     

2013-2019年河南省城市癌症早诊早治项目地区人群结肠镜筛查结果和依从性分析

目的评价2013-2019年河南省城市癌症早诊早治项目地区人群结肠镜筛查结果和依从性。方法研究对象来源于河南省"城市癌症早诊早治项目",于2013年10月至2019年10月,以郑州市、驻马店市、安阳市、洛阳市、南阳市、焦作市、濮阳市和新乡市为研究地区,招募282 377名40~74岁在本地居住3年以上的人群为研究对象。采用患癌风险评估问卷收集基本人口学特征、饮食习惯、生活环境和习惯、心理和情绪、疾病既往史和癌症家族史以及女性的生理和生育史等信息,采用癌症高危风险评估系统评价研究对象的结直肠癌的患病风险;同时从项目参与医院获取参与研究对象的结肠镜筛查参与情况和筛查结果。采用χ²检验分析不同特征人群筛查结果及筛查依从性的差异。结果 282 377名对象年龄为(55.26±8.68)岁,男性占44.80%(126 505名),教育程度以初中/高中/大专为主67.63%(190 694名)。共有39 834名(14.11%)对象被评估为结直肠癌高危人群,其中仅有7 454名(18.71%)研究对象接受结肠镜筛查,50~54岁(20.42%)和55~59岁(20.43%)年龄段参与率较高,70岁及以上年龄段最低(12.30%)(P<0.001)。接受结肠镜筛查的研究对象中共检出17例结直肠癌,检出率为0.23%(17/7 454)。结论结肠镜作为结直肠癌筛查的手段有助于早期发现结直肠病变,但结肠镜筛查依从性较差。     

结直肠癌患者营养风险筛查及对术后感染风险的影响

目的筛查结直肠癌患者营养风险并分析其对患者术后感染风险的影响,为降低术后感染提供依据。方法收集2008年1月-2016年6月医院收治的结直肠癌患者206例,使用营养风险筛查量表(NRS 2002)对结直肠癌患者营养风险进行筛查,并根据NRS 2002将患者分为研究组(≥3分)和对照组(<3分),其中研究组82例,对照组124例;主要观察指标为两组患者术后总感染率和切口感染率。结果与对照组比较,研究组患者总感染率显著增高(15.85%vs.3.23%,P=0.003);切口感染率显著增高(8.54%vs.0.81%,P=0.015);另外研究组患者红细胞(t=3.395)、白蛋白(t=3.352)、前白蛋白(t=5.834)、血红蛋白(t=2.853)和BMI(t=4.124)水平显著低于对照组(P<0.05);单因素和多因素logistic回归分析显示术前NRS评分增加、BMI降低和白蛋白减少是结直肠癌患者术后感染的危险因素(P<0.05)。结论 NRS≥3分的结直肠癌患者术后感染率显著增高,应加强NRS≥3分的结直肠癌患者的肠内营养支持。     

The impact of CT colonography for colorectal cancer screening on the UK NHS

Background

Biennial faecal occult blood testing (FOBT) for individuals aged 60–69 years is the primary screening tool for colorectal cancer (CRC) in the UK NHS, despite a large number of patients undergoing an unnecessary optical colonoscopy (OC) and evidence from modelling studies to suggest that more cost-effective technologies exist. CT colonography (CTC) is an emerging CRC screening technology with the potential to prevent CRC by detecting pre-cancerous polyps and to detect cancer at an earlier stage.

Objective

To assess the impact of introducing CTC into the UK NHS screening programme for CRC on key health outcomes as well as the NHS budget and healthcare resource capacity.

Methods

A discrete Markov model was used to reflect the natural history of CRC and the impact of three screening scenarios (biennial FOBT with and without CTC triage of patients referred to OC, and CTC every 5 years) on a range of health outcomes, including the incidence and prevalence of CRC, in a hypothetical cohort of individuals. The yearly costs, health outcomes and healthcare resource capacity requirements were estimated over a 10-year period (2009–18).

Results

Using CTC to follow up FOBT-positive patients (scenario 2) was less costly than directing all FOBT-positive patients to OC (scenario 1); saving d776 283 over 10 years for 100 000 individuals invited for screening (year 2007 values), primarily by avoiding approximately 1700 OCs, but was estimated to require 2200 additional CT scans. Implementing a programme of 5-yearly CTC as a primary screen is expected to be more expensive than FOBT screening over the short term (driven by high screening and diagnosis costs), despite substantial savings in treatment costs for CRC over the 10-year time horizon of the model and improved health outcomes.

Conclusions

Adding CTC into the existing NHS Bowel Cancer Screening Programme as part of a preventive screening strategy could be less costly to the NHS over the longer term when used to triage FOBT-positive patients to appropriate follow-up. Increased demand for radiology services may be compensated for by reduced demand in endoscopy units.     

The Next Step Trial: impact of a worksite colorectal cancer screening promotion program

BACKGROUND: The Next Step Trial was a randomized trial of worksite colorectal cancer screening promotion and nutrition interventions for automobile industry employees at increased risk of colorectal cancer. Interventions were tested at 28 worksites with 5,042 employees. This report describes results of the screening promotion intervention. METHODS: Worksites randomized to the control group received a standard program including rectal examination, fecal occult blood testing, and flexible sigmoidoscopy. Intervention worksites received an enhanced program (i.e., standard program plus an educational booklet/telephone call). Compliance (i.e., completion of all recommended screening examinations) and coverage (i.e., completion of at least one screening examination), the primary and secondary outcomes, were measured over 2 years. RESULTS: In the 2 years prior to baseline, 61% of employees had been screened. After random assignment, baseline differences in several employee characteristics and worksite screening procedures were detected, including more past history of screening in control worksites. After adjusting for differences, we found modest, but higher, compliance and coverage in intervention compared with control worksites (odds ratio [95% confidence limits] = 1.46 [1.1-2.0] and 1.33 [1.1, 1.6], respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Adding a personally tailored behavioral intervention to a standard colorectal cancer screening program can promote continued employee participation in screening as measured by compliance. Further research is needed to assess intervention effects in other populations.     

Adherence with colorectal cancer screening guidelines: a review

OBJECTIVE: To review screening rates and factors impacting patient utilization of colorectal cancer screening tests. METHODS: We searched Medline, CancerLit, and PsycInfo for articles on colorectal cancer screening adherence. US studies on average-risk individuals were reviewed to identify: (1) utilization/adherence rates, (2) predictors of patient adherence, (3) correlation between long-term adherence and type of test selected, (4) predictors of physician recommendation of screening tests, and (5) patterns in the type of test recommended by physicians. RESULTS: In 2000, only 34% of the US population obtained screening within recommended time frames (fecal occult blood test annually, flexible sigmoidoscopy every 5 years, or colonoscopy every 10 years). Positive attitude toward screening and physician recommendation result in high adherence while fear of finding cancer and the belief that cancer is fatal result in low adherence. Physician specialty impacts the type of test recommended, while perceived lack of patient adherence is not a consistent barrier to recommending screening tests. Matching individuals with their choice of screening test and newer technology, such as virtual colonoscopy, may help increase adherence. CONCLUSION: Additional studies are required on differences in adherence between tests, whether patient preferences impact adherence, and how the physician-patient relationship can be fostered to increase adherence.     

Invitation strategies for colorectal cancer screening programmes: The impact of an advance notification letter

AimTo estimate the impact of an advance notification letter on participation in sigmoidoscopy (FS) and fecal immunochemical test (FIT) screening.MethodsEligible subjects, invited in 3 Italian population based programmes using FS and in 5 using FIT, were randomised (1:1:1), within GP, to: A) standard invitation letter; B) advance notification followed after 1 month by the standard invitation; and C) B + indication to contact the general practitioner (GP) to get advice about the decision to be screened. We calculated the 9-month attendance and the incremental cost of each strategy. We conducted a phone survey to assess GP's utilization and predictors of participation.ResultsThe advance notification was associated with a 20% increase in the attendance among 15,655 people invited for FS (B vs A — RR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.10–1.25; C vs A — RR: 1.19, 95% CI: 1.12–1.27); the incremental cost ranged between 10 and 9 Euros. Participation in FIT screening (N = 23,543) was increased only with simple pre-notification (B vs A — RR: 1.06, 95% CI: 1.02–1.10); the incremental cost was 22.5 Euros. GP consultation rate was not increased in group C.ConclusionsAn advance notification represents a cost-effective strategy to increase participation in FS screening; its impact on the response to FIT screening was limited.