我国大中城市自来水氯消毒效果探讨

151 tap waters in 140 Chinese larger cities were investigated. In North China, under-ground waters were 47 out of 69; in South China, surface waters were 74 out of 82. Disinfection with liquid chlorine was the main treatment process (about 125 tap waters). In general, pollution of the raw waters in the South were higher than that in the North; in the surface waters were higher than that in the under-ground waters. It was the same with the amount of chlorine demand during chlorination. The average amount of chlorine added into the tap waters was 2.12mg/L, their average demand of chlorine was 1.43mg/L, and the average amount of residual chlorine was 0.68mg/L. The amount of chlorine demand during chlorination of the tap waters was markedly affected by the amount of NH+4(N), NO2- (N) or chemical oxygen demand in them, but not affected by the microorganisms in them. No sample of the tap waters contained more than 3/L coliform groups and 100/L bacterial total counts, when their residual chlorine was higher than 0.3mg/L.     

饮用水源水中典型有机污染物健康风险与遗传毒性评价

目的为了评价饮用水源水中有机污染物健康风险及遗传毒性。方法Z省对水源中176种有机物例行监测,监测结果采用美国国家环保局（USEPA）推荐水环境健康风险评价模型对水源水中有机物经饮水途径导致的健康风险进行评价。结果显示微囊藻毒素（Microcystin,MCs）和草甘膦农药分布广、检出率高,是水中典型的有机污染物。饮用水源中有机物引起的健康风险相对较小,远低于国际权威机构推荐的可接受水平。同时,利用单细胞凝胶电泳法进行DNA损伤分析结果表明,水源水中MCLR、MCRR均可以造成淋巴细胞DNA链明显损伤,草甘膦也可导致人外周血淋巴细胞DNA不同程度的损伤,而且DNA损伤效应可能受到水源水中其他组分的影响。结论显示了水中有机物遗传毒性作用的复杂性。     

Study of penetration to surface waters of pesticides used for protection of greenhouse plants]

Study was made of waste waters from two of the seven state horticultural farms producing vegetables and flowers, located in South-Eastern Poland, samples were taken from collectors carrying waste waters from the greenhouse culture surface, from a ditch and from the Wis?ok River where these waste waters are carried. Pesticides were extracted with dichloromethane or petroleum ether. Extracts were evaporated to dryness, whereupon the residues were dissolved in 5 ml of acetone or petroleum ether, and were analysed by gas chromotography (series 104 Pye Unicam gas chromotograph fitted with ECD and TID detectors). The following pesticides were found to penetrate into waste waters: methylpyrimiphos, methidathion, fenitrothion diazinon, methoxychlor, endosulfan, iprodione, vinclozoline, captan, carbendazim (MBC), dichlofluanid. These pesticides were present also in water samples collected from aditch into which waste waters from one of the investigated state farms are carried. There were no pesticides in samples of the Wis?ok River waters.     

Determination of barium in natural curative waters by ICP-OES technique. Part I. Waters taken on the area of health resorts in Poland

Maximum admissible concentration level (MACL) of barium in natural mineral waters, natural spring waters and potable waters was set at the level of 1 mg/l, while MACL of this element in natural curative waters intended for drinking therapies and inhalations were set at the levels of 1.0 mg/l and 10.0 mg/l, respectively. Those requirements were related to therapies which are applied longer than one month. Above mentioned maximum admissible concentration levels of barium in consumed waters were established after taking into account actual criteria of World Health Organization which determined the guidelines value for this element in water intended for human consumption at the level of 0.7 mg/l. In this work developed and validated method of determination of barium by inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry technique was applied for determination of this element in 45 natural curative waters sampled from 24 spa districts situated on the area of Poland. Concentrations of barium determined were in the range from 0.0036 mg/l to 24.0 mg/l. Natural curative waters characterized by concentrations of barium in the ranges of 0.0036 - 0.073 mg/l, 0.0036 - 1.31 mg/l and 0.0036 - 24.0 mg/l, were applied to drinking therapy, inhalations and balneotherapy, respectively (some of waters analyzed were simultaneously applied to drinking therapy, inhalations and balneotherapy). In the cases of 11 natural curative waters exceeding limit of 1 mg/l were observed, however they were classified mainly as waters applied to balneotherapy and in two cases to inhalation therapies (concentrations of barium - 1.08 mg/l and 1.31 mg/l). The procedure of classification of curative waters for adequate therapies based among other things on barium concentrations meets requirements of the Decree of Minister of Health from 13 April 2006 on the range of studies indispensable for establishing medicinal properties of natural curative materials and curative properties of climate, criteria of their assessment and a specimen of certificate confirmed those properties.     

Gustatory Evaluation of Still and Carbonated Waters: A Preference Rating Study

We studied the sensory preference for six still waters and four carbonated waters, nonflavored, by 11 tasting experts (4 women and 7 men). Five tasters rated the still waters, four tasters rated the carbonated water, and seven tasters rated twice on each of the still waters when evaluated with a dry red wine. All ratings were performed through answering a set of questions regarding the specific taste and/or smell of the waters. All tasters and the statistician were blinded to the water brands during rating and analysis. Multidimensional preference analysis and correspondence analysis were used to portray the underlying sensory preference. Still waters with higher mineral content tended to be less favorable for drinking purposes. On the other hand, carbonated waters with more minerals (but not over a certain limit) were favorable, and still waters with higher mineral content were preferable as mouth cleaners for red wine. The methodology can be carried to the food and beverage industries, to the functional foods industry, and to medical research where the preference of patients toward certain medications is of interest.     

The composition of mineral waters sourced from Europe and North America in respect to bone health: composition of mineral water optimal for bone

The consumption of mineral waters is increasing in industrialised countries. High intakes of Ca and other alkalising cations as well as a low acid intake are beneficial to bone. We examined which components of mineral waters are conditioning their Ca content and their alkalinising power, in order to define the optimal profile. European mineral waters were randomly selected on the Internet: 100 waters with less than 200 mg Ca/l (9.98 mEq/l) and fifty with more than 200 mg/l, all with complete data for SO4, P, Cl, Na, K, Mg and Ca, and most also for HCO3. For comparison, forty North American mineral waters were randomly chosen. The potential renal acid load (PRAL) was calculated for each mineral water. North American waters did not reveal significant results because of their low mineralisation. We performed correlations between all eight components in order to explore the properties of the mineral waters. In the European waters, twenty-six out of twenty-eight correlations showed a P value of 0 (acidifying waters), PRAL was positively correlated with SO4, Ca, K and Mg (P < 0.001). In those with PRAL < 0 (alkalinising waters), PRAL was negatively correlated with HCO3, Na, Mg, Ca, K, Cl and SO4 (P < 0.001). SO4 and HCO3 were not found together in high quantities in the same water for geochemical reasons. A high Ca content is associated with either a high SO4 or a high HCO3 content. SO4 theoretically increases Ca excretion, while HCO3 and low PRAL values are associated with positive effects on bone. Therefore, the best waters for bone health are rich in both HCO3 and Ca, and by consequence low in SO4.     

Health risks of limited-contact water recreation

Background: Wastewater-impacted waters that do not support swimming are often used for boating, canoeing, fishing, kayaking, and rowing. Little is known about the health risks of these limited-contact water recreation activities.Objectives: We evaluated the incidence of illness, severity of illness, associations between water exposure and illness, and risk of illness attributable to limited-contact water recreation on waters dominated by wastewater effluent and on waters approved for general use recreation (such as swimming).Methods: The Chicago Health, Environmental Exposure, and Recreation Study was a prospective cohort study that evaluated five health outcomes among three groups of people: those who engaged in limited-contact water recreation on effluent-dominated waters, those who engaged in limited-contact recreation on general-use waters, and those who engaged in non–water recreation. Data analysis included survival analysis, logistic regression, and estimates of risk for counterfactual exposure scenarios using G-computation.Results: Telephone follow-up data were available for 11,297 participants. With non–water recreation as the reference group, we found that limited-contact water recreation was associated with the development of acute gastrointestinal illness in the first 3 days after water recreation at both effluent-dominated waters [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.46; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.08, 1.96] and general-use waters (1.50; 95% CI: 1.09, 2.07). For every 1,000 recreators, 13.7 (95% CI: 3.1, 24.9) and 15.1 (95% CI: 2.6, 25.7) cases of gastrointestinal illness were attributable to limited-contact recreation at effluent-dominated waters and general-use waters, respectively. Eye symptoms were associated with use of effluent-dominated waters only (AOR 1.50; 95% CI: 1.10, 2.06). Among water recreators, our results indicate that illness was associated with the amount of water exposure.Conclusions: Limited-contact recreation, both on effluent-dominated waters and on waters designated for general use, was associated with an elevated risk of gastrointestinal illness.     

Enteroviruses in recreational waters of Northern Ireland.

Virus surveillance of Northern Ireland recreational waters, between April 1986 and May 1989 demonstrated widespread enteroviral contamination of coastal and inland waters. In 1986, enteroviruses were detected in 4 of 46 (8.7%) water samples, collected from 6 coastal bathing waters. In 1987, 49 of 107 (45.8%) samples, from 16 coastal bathing waters, yielded enteroviruses; 33 of the enterovirus positive samples passed one or both of the coliform standards outlined by the European Economic Community (EEC) bathing water directive (76/160/EEC). Enteroviruses were also detected in 33 of 39 (84.6%) samples tested from 3 inland recreational waters.     

Occurrence of organochlorine compounds in drinking water for cities of Zielona Gora and in water of some rivers in the Zielona Gora province]

In years 1988-1989 the contents of organochlorine compounds were determined by gas chromatography in tap water obtained by treatment of a mixture of surface water and subterranean water, as well as in waters of three rivers of the Zielona Góra province Odra, Obra Leniwa and Obrzyca. Chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene were determined. These compounds were present both in surface waters and subterranean waters. In subterranean waters the mean concentrations of chloroform and carbon tetrachloride were 12.3 and 2.7 micrograms/dm3, respectively. Surface waters contained from 10-20 to several tons of micrograms chloroform/dm3 and small amounts of carbon tetrachloride. The remaining organochlorine compounds occurred only in the Odra River, often in considerable amounts. During water treatment in accelerators, chloroform concentrations rose several times, and carbon tetrachloride levels slightly increased. In tap water the chloroform content fluctuated between 18.1-90.0 micrograms/dm3, whereas the concentration of the remaining organochlorine compounds did not exceed 5 micrograms/dm3.     

Water, mineral waters and health

The authors focus on water resources and the use of mineral waters in human nutrition, especially in the different stages of life, in physical activity and in the presence of some morbid conditions. Mineral water is characterized by its purity at source, its content in minerals, trace elements and other constituents, its conservation and its healing properties recognized by the Ministry of Health after clinical and pharmacological trials. Based on total salt content in grams after evaporation of 1l mineral water dried at 180 degrees C (dry residues), mineral waters can be classified as: waters with a very low mineral content, waters low in mineral content, waters with a medium mineral content, and strongly mineralized waters. Based on ion composition mineral waters can be classified as: bicarbonate waters, sulfate waters, sodium chloride or saltwater, sulfuric waters. Based on biological activity mineral waters can be classified as: diuretic waters, cathartic waters, waters with antiphlogistic properties. Instructions for use, doses, and current regulations are included.     

Environmental quality of Volturno river with toxic and genotoxic findings

In order to assess the environmental quality of Volturno river in Southern Italy, the Extended Biotic Index, chemical and microbiological parameters were determined in nine sampling points as provided for D. Lgs. 152/99. Furthermore, this study reported toxicity of surface waters and pore waters from sediments and genotoxicity of pore waters to improve the definition of the ecological condition of the investigated watercourse. Results showed that toxicity and genotoxicity testing contributed to assess environmental quality and pore waters are an useful tool to combine investigations.     

重庆某高校桶装饮用水及饮水机微生物污染检测情况分析

目的 了解桶装饮用水及饮水机微生物污染状况，探讨其原因并提出处理措施。方法检测了25桶桶装饮用水及43台饮水机用水的细菌总数和霉菌。结果 桶装饮用水及饮水机用水的细菌总数和霉菌都有一定的超标。结论 造成桶装饮用水及饮水机用水水质微生物超标的原因包括生产厂家因素、用户因素、卫生部门监管力度、市场规范等等方面。     

Effects of hardness and alkalinity in culture and test waters on reproduction of Ceriodaphnia dubia

Ceriodaphnia dubia were cultured in four reconstituted water formulations with hardness and alkalinity concentrations ranging from soft to the moderately hard water that is required by whole-effluent toxicity (WET) testing methods for culturing test organisms. The effects of these culture formulations alone and in combination with two levels of Cl-, SO4(2-), and HCO3- on reproduction of C. dubia were evaluated with the standard three-brood test. Reproduction was significantly reduced when test waters had lower hardness than culture waters. However, reproduction was not significantly different when animals cultured in low-hardness waters were exposed to moderately hard waters. The hardness of the culture water did not significantly affect the sensitivity of C. dubia to the three anions. Conversely, increased hardness in test waters significantly reduced the toxicities of Cl- and SO4(2-), with HCO3- toxicity following the same pattern. Alkalinity exhibited no consistent effect on Cl- and SO4(2-) toxicity. The physiological stress of placing animals cultured in moderately hard water into softer test waters might contribute to marginal failures of otherwise nontoxic effluents. The standard WET protocol should be revised to allow the culture of C. dubia under lower hardness conditions to better represent local surface water chemistries.     

A Comparative Study of the Sensitivities of Salmonella typhimurium Strains TA 98, TA 100 and TA 102 to Hospital Waste Waters

Hospitals are a release source of many chemical compounds in their wastewaters. In the present study Salmonella typhimurium strains TA 98, TA 100 and TA 102 were analyzed for their sensitivity to hospital waste waters. The results of the study showed that hospital waste waters consists of mutagens causing frame shift mutations and base pair substitutions and amongst the three strains used in this study, TA 102 was most effective which along with TA 98 can be used for quick assessment of genotoxicity of hospital waste waters prior to its discharge. Genotoxic potential of hospital waste waters from five major hospitals located in Jaipur and Delhi was studied. Such waste waters should be treated prior to their discharge. The results of this study call for further detailed study in this area of research.     

应用简化和定量方法从空调冷却水中培养分离军团菌

目的：建立简便技术并用于调研该地区空调冷却水中军团菌的分布等。方法：用简单法配制军团菌培养基;以爆缸取代CO2培养箱;仅依据菌落形态的符合和在血琼脂上不生长初判军团菌,并用简式作定量。结果：应用简化和定量的方法于1997年7月至1999年6月,从上海市卢湾区6类建筑物47个定点的371侏空调冷却水样中,检出了185件军团菌,出率达49．875,其中地铁站达69．36％。结论了简化的军团菌培养分离和定量法,以此法在历经3年较系统的定点调研中,检出率达49．87％,非常显著地高于国内已发表的资料而与国外相近,其中地铁站却水的军团菌检出率和菌量均最高,故其传播军团病的危险性应引起注意。     

What’s in the Pool? A Comprehensive Identification of Disinfection By-products and Assessment of Mutagenicity of Chlorinated and Brominated Swimming Pool Water

Background

Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in the water and related that to mutagenicity.

Objectives

We performed a comprehensive identification of DBPs and disinfectant species in waters from public swimming pools in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, that disinfect with either chlorine or bromine and we determined the mutagenicity of the waters to compare with the analytical results.

Methods

We used gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to measure trihalomethanes in water, GC with electron capture detection for air, low- and high-resolution GC/MS to comprehensively identify DBPs, photometry to measure disinfectant species (free chlorine, monochloroamine, dichloramine, and trichloramine) in the waters, and an ion chromatography method to measure trichloramine in air. We assessed mutagenicity with the Salmonella mutagenicity assay.

Results

We identified > 100 DBPs, including many nitrogen-containing DBPs that were likely formed from nitrogen-containing precursors from human inputs, such as urine, sweat, and skin cells. Many DBPs were new and have not been reported previously in either swimming pool or drinking waters. Bromoform levels were greater in brominated than in chlorinated pool waters, but we also identified many brominated DBPs in the chlorinated waters. The pool waters were mutagenic at levels similar to that of drinking water (~ 1,200 revertants/L-equivalents in strain TA100–S9 mix).

Conclusions

This study identified many new DBPs not identified previously in swimming pool or drinking water and found that swimming pool waters are as mutagenic as typical drinking waters.     

The effect of the alkali load of mineral water on bone metabolism: interventional studies

Alkali supplements decrease bone resorption and increase bone mineral density. Alkali diets also lower bone resorption. Mineral waters alone could have such an effect. In several subsequent studies in humans, bicarbonate-rich alkali mineral waters with low potential renal acid load values were shown to decrease bone resorption markers and even parathyroid hormone levels. This effect seems to be stronger than that of acidic calcium-rich mineral waters and could also be demonstrated in calcium sufficiency.     

Comparison of membrane filtration and multiple tube methods for the enumeration of coliform organisms in water

The membrane methods described in Report 71 on the bacteriological examination of water supplies (Report, 1969) for the enumeration of coliform organisms and Escherichia coli in waters, together with a glutamate membrane method, were compared with the glutamate multiple tube method recommended in Report 71 and an incubation procedure similar to that used for membranes with the first 4 hr. at 30° C., and with MacConkey broth in multiple tubes. Although there were some differences between individual laboratories, the combined results from all participating laboratories showed that standard and extended membrane methods gave significantly higher results than the glutamate tube method for coliform organisms in both chlorinated and unchlorinated waters, but significantly lower results for Esch. coli with chlorinated waters and equivocal results with unchlorinated waters. Extended membranes gave higher results than glutamate tubes in larger proportions of samples than did standard membranes. Although transport membranes did not do so well as standard membrane methods, the results were usually in agreement with glutamate tubes except for Esch. coli in chlorinated waters. The glutamate membranes were unsatisfactory. Preliminary incubation of glutamate at 30° C. made little difference to the results.     

三种特殊饮用水对小鼠免疫系统的影响

目的　了解碱性离子水、矿溶生态水、活化水对机体免疫系统的影响。方法　根据《保健食品功能学评价程序和检验方法 1 996》 ,选用 1 2 0只 1 7 8～ 2 3 3g健康雄性Balb c小鼠 ,分为 4小组 ,每小组 30只 ,每天分别自由饮用纯净水 (对照组 )、碱性离子水、矿溶生态水、活化水 ,5 0天后进行小鼠脏器体重比值测定、迟发型变态反应实验、腹腔巨噬细胞吞噬鸡红细胞实验、半数溶血值 (HC50 )的测定和抗体生成细胞数的测定(Ⅰ组 )。另选用 1 2 0只 1 7 8～ 2 3 3g健康雄性Balb c小鼠 ,分组同前 ,5 0天后进行ConA诱导的小鼠淋巴细胞转化实验和NK细胞活性测定 (Ⅱ组 ) ,再选用 1 2 0只 1 6 7～ 2 2 0g健康雌性Balb c小鼠 ,分组同前 ,5 0天后进行小鼠碳廓清实验 (Ⅲ组 )。实验数据用stata软件 ,多个实验组和一个对照组间比较 ,进行方差分析。结果　 (1 )三种特殊饮用水与纯净水比较 ,对雌性Balb c小鼠体重增长的影响不显著 ,但饮用碱性离子水和活化水的雄性小鼠的体重增长值均明显低于纯净水 (P <0 0 1和P <0 0 5 ) ;(2 )活化水与纯净水组间比较 ,胸腺体重比值明显增加 (P <0 0 5 ) ;腹腔巨噬细胞鸡红细胞吞噬指数明显增加 (P <0 0 1 ) ;NK细胞活性明显增加(P <0 0 1 )。 (3)其他指标与相应的纯净水比较差?     

Risk assessment and control of waterborne giardiasis.

BACKGROUND: Waterborne giardiasis has been increasing in the United States with 95 outbreaks reported over the last 25 years. The Safe Drinking Water Act has mandated control of this pathogen. METHODS: A risk assessment model was developed to estimate risk of infection after exposure to treated waters containing varying levels of Giardia cysts. The model was defined by a dose-response curve developed from human feeding studies for Giardia and assumed 2L of water consumption per day. Data on concentrations and distribution of the organism in source waters were used to assess exposure after varying reductions achieved through treatment. RESULTS: In surveys reporting prevalence and levels of Giardia cyst contamination, average levels of cysts in surface waters ranged from 0.33 to 104/100L; from pristine watersheds (protected from all human activity) 0.6 to 5/100L. Yearly risks were 4.8 x 10(-3) for systems using polluted waters and 1.3 x 10(-4) for pristine waters with a 10(-3) treatment reduction. CONCLUSION: Public Health officials will need to work with the water industry to ensure a risk of less than 1/10,000 for source waters with 0.7 to 70 cysts per 100 liters through treatment achieving reduction of 10(-3) to 10(-5), respectively, of Giardia cysts.